A media event, also known as a pseudo-event, is an event, activity, or experience conducted for the purpose of media

publicity In marketing, publicity is the public visibility or awareness for any product, service, person or organization (company, charity, etc.). It may also refer to the movement of information from its source to the general public, often (but not always) ...

. It may also include any event that is covered in the

mass media Mass media refers to a diverse array of media technologies that reach a large audience via mass communication. The technologies through which this communication takes place include a variety of outlets. Broadcast media transmit information ...

or was hosted largely with the media in mind. In media studies, a media event is an established theoretical term first developed by

Elihu Katz Elihu Katz (Hebrew: אליהוא כ"ץ, 21 May 1926 – 31 December 2021) was an American and Israeli sociologist and communication scientist, usually associated with uses and gratifications theory. He is known for his work with Paul Lazarsfel ...

and

Daniel Dayan Daniel Dayan is a French social scientist Social science is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field ...

in the 1992 book ''Media Events: The Live Broadcasting of History.'' Media events in this sense are ceremonial events with narrative progression that are live broadcast and gather a large segment of the population, such as royal weddings or funerals. The defining characteristics of a media event are that it is immediate (i.e., it is broadcast live), organized by a non-media entity, containing ceremonial and dramatic value, preplanning, and focusing on a personality, whether that be a single person or a group. The 2009 book ''Media Events in a Global Age'' updates the concept. The theory of media events has also been applied to social media, for instance in an analysis of tweets about the Swedish elections or an analysis of the Bernie Sanders mittens meme during the

inauguration of Joe Biden The inauguration of Joe Biden as the 46th president of the United States took place on Wednesday, January 20, 2021, marking the start of the four-year term of Joe Biden as president and Kamala Harris as vice president. The 59th presidential ...

. Media events may center on a news announcement, an

anniversary An anniversary is the date on which an event took place or an institution was founded in a previous year, and may also refer to the commemoration or celebration of that event. The word was first used for Catholic feasts to commemorate saints ...

, a

news conference A press conference or news conference is a media event in which notable individuals or organizations invite journalists to hear them speak and ask questions. Press conferences are often held by politicians, corporations, non-governmental organ ...

, or planned events like speeches or demonstrations. Instead of paying for advertising time, a media or pseudo-event seeks to use

public relations Public relations (PR) is the practice of managing and disseminating information from an individual or an organization (such as a business, government agency, or a nonprofit organization) to the public in order to influence their perception. P ...

to gain media and public attention. The theorist Marshal McLuhan has stated that the pseudo-event has been viewed as an event that is separate from reality and is to simply satisfy our need for constant excitement and interest in pop culture. These events are, “planned, planted, or incited (Merrin, 2002)” solely to be reproduced later again and again. The term pseudo-event was coined by the

theorist A theory is a rational type of abstract thinking about a phenomenon, or the results of such thinking. The process of contemplative and rational thinking is often associated with such processes as observational study or research. Theories may be s ...

and

historian A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the stu ...

Daniel J. Boorstin Daniel Joseph Boorstin (October 1, 1914 – February 28, 2004) was an American historian at the University of Chicago who wrote on many topics in American and world history. He was appointed the twelfth Librarian of the United States Congress in ...

in his 1961 book '' The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-events in America'': “The celebration is held, photographs are taken, the occasion is widely reported.” The term is closely related to idea of

hyperreality Described by Jean Baudrillard, the concept of hyperreality captures the inability to distinguish "The Real" (a term borrowed from Jacques Lacan) from the signifier of it. This is more prominent in technologically advanced societies. Hyperreality ...

and thus

postmodernism Postmodernism is an intellectual stance or Rhetorical modes, mode of discourseNuyen, A.T., 1992. The Role of Rhetorical Devices in Postmodernist Discourse. Philosophy & Rhetoric, pp.183–194. characterized by philosophical skepticism, skepticis ...

, although Boorstin's coinage predates the two ideas and related work of postmodern thinkers such as

Jean Baudrillard Jean Baudrillard ( , , ; 27 July 1929 – 6 March 2007) was a French sociologist, philosopher and poet with interest in cultural studies. He is best known for his analyses of media, contemporary culture, and technological communication, as w ...

. A media event being a kind of planned event, it may be called inauthentic in contrast to a spontaneous one. In distinguishing between a pseudo-event and a spontaneous one, Boorstin states characteristics of a pseudo-event in his book titled "Hidden History." He says that a pseudo-event is: dramatic, repeatable, costly, intellectually planned, and social. It causes other pseudo-events, and one must know about it to be considered "informed". A number of

video art Video art is an art form which relies on using video technology as a visual and audio medium. Video art emerged during the late 1960s as new consumer video technology such as video tape recorders became available outside corporate broadcasting ...

ists have explored the concept of a pseudo-event. The group

Ant Farm A formicarium or ant farm is a vivarium which is designed primarily for the study of ant colonies and how ants behave. Those who study ant behavior are known as myrmecologists. History The formicarium was invented by Charles Janet, a French ...

especially plays with pseudo events, though not so identified, in their works "Media Burn" (1975) and "

The Eternal Frame ''The Eternal Frame'' (1975) is a video-based art installation documenting the reenactment of the John F. Kennedy assassination in Dealey Plaza in a collaboration between two San Francisco-based artist collectives: T.R. Uthco (Diane Andrews Hall, ...

" (1975).

Types of pseudo-events

Press Conference A press conference or news conference is a media event in which notable individuals or organizations invite journalists to hear them speak and ask questions. Press conferences are often held by politicians, corporations, non-governmental organ ...

: A news conference is often held when an organization wants members of the press to get an announcement simultaneously. The in-person events may include interviews, questioning, and show-and-tell. These conferences often provide little information about the topic or don't reach a clear consensus. Media events like news conferences can come to be expected, especially before, during, and after sporting events, and the

National Football League The National Football League (NFL) is a professional American football league that consists of 32 teams, divided equally between the American Football Conference (AFC) and the National Football Conference (NFC). The NFL is one of the ...

demands that its players provide a weekly media event by taking postgame questions from reporters. When Seattle Seahawks running back

Marshawn Lynch Marshawn Terrell Lynch (born April 22, 1986) is an American former football running back who played in the National Football League (NFL) for 12 seasons. Nicknamed "Beast Mode", he spent the majority of his career with the Seattle Seahawks. Lync ...

dressed and left the stadium after a loss on Nov. 16, 2014, the NFL fined him $100,000.

Political Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that studies ...

Political convention The terms party conference (UK English), political convention ( US and Canadian English), and party congress usually refer to a general meeting of a political party. The conference is attended by certain delegates who represent the party memb ...

s, planned presentations or speeches about company earnings or political issues, are a form of media event. Celebrity events:

Award ceremonies An award, sometimes called a distinction, is something given to a recipient as a token of recognition of excellence in a certain field. When the token is a medal, ribbon or other item designed for wearing, it is known as a decoration. An award ...

, red carpet events and celebrity

photo op A photo op (sometimes written as photo opp), short for photograph opportunity (or photo opportunity), is an arranged opportunity to take a photograph of a politician, a celebrity, or a notable event.Sex tapes: When created with the intention of being 'leaked' is a form of a pseudo-event because its purpose is to generate media attention.

Protests A protest (also called a demonstration, remonstration or remonstrance) is a public expression of objection, disapproval or dissent towards an idea or action, typically a political one. Protests can be thought of as acts of coopera ...

and charity events: They may be planned almost exclusively for the purpose of getting media attention for an issue or cause. This usually happens when organizers have ill intentions to receive attention or donations for the wrong reasons, in order to protect their reputation.

Historic examples

Media events became prominent when the media did. The driving of the

Golden Spike The golden spike (also known as The Last Spike) is the ceremonial 17.6-karat gold final spike driven by Leland Stanford to join the rails of the first transcontinental railroad across the United States connecting the Central Pacific Railroad ...

Promontory Summit, Utah Promontory is an area of high ground in Box Elder County, Utah, United States, 32 mi (51 km) west of Brigham City and 66 mi (106 km) northwest of Salt Lake City. Rising to an elevation of 4,902 feet (1,494 m) above se ...

, in 1869 has been described as one of the first media events in the United States.

Edward Bernays Edward Louis Bernays ( , ; November 22, 1891 − March 9, 1995) was an American theorist, considered a pioneer in the field of public relations and propaganda, and referred to in his obituary as "the father of public relations". His best-known ca ...

and his

Torches of Freedom "Torches of Freedom" was a phrase used to encourage women's smoking by exploiting women's aspirations for a better life during the early twentieth century first-wave feminism in the United States. Cigarettes were described as symbols of emancipatio ...

campaign in 1929 is an example of an early media event that successfully influenced public opinion. Similarly,

Nikita Khrushchev Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (– 11 September 1971) was the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 and chairman of the country's Council of Ministers from 1958 to 1964. During his rule, Khrushchev s ...

visit to the United States in 1959 was highly influential, and has been cited as the first example of media events being utilized in politics. Media events became practical in the middle 19th century as the Morse

telegraph Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of messages where the sender uses symbolic codes, known to the recipient, rather than a physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus flag semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas p ...

and the expansion of

daily newspaper A newspaper is a periodical publication containing written information about current events and is often typed in black ink with a white or gray background. Newspapers can cover a wide variety of fields such as politics, business, sports a ...

s introduced same-day

news cycle The 24-hour news cycle (or 24/7 news cycle) is 24-hour investigation and reporting of news, concomitant with fast-paced lifestyles. The vast news resources available in recent decades have increased competition for audience and advertiser attent ...

s. The emergence of the internet led to many media stories being published live from the media event, real-time Twitter coverage, and immediate analysis of televised media events. When musical artist

Prince A prince is a male ruler (ranked below a king, grand prince, and grand duke) or a male member of a monarch's or former monarch's family. ''Prince'' is also a title of nobility (often highest), often hereditary, in some European states. Th ...

pretended to take questions during his

Super Bowl The Super Bowl is the annual final playoff game of the National Football League (NFL) to determine the league champion. It has served as the final game of every NFL season since 1966, replacing the NFL Championship Game. Since 2022, the game ...

press conference but instead broke immediately into song, his performance itself became a meta media-event-within-a-media-event.

Authenticity of events

These events are used by public relations professionals to satisfy journalists’ interests and needs so they can create a great story that makes an impact on the public. Examples include politicians taking photos with citizens to boost their likeability and press conferences. Though this is very common, using this media technique has been criticized for not producing authentic material, which is seen as stylistic instead of substantial informational. The public relations industry targets all sectors, not just government, with pseudo-events on behalf of representing and maintaining their clients’ interests and image. This can bring into question if some of the media put out is actually true news and can be relied on, especially since serious topics are talked about using this technique. Tourism authenticity The tourism industry is subject to pseudo-events that are often unnoticed to the average tourist themselves. Every country may have specific sites, attractions, and things to do for a tourist so they can experience what life is like in that country or at least be introduced to the culture. The locals know that these attractions aren’t always a true reflection of life in that country, but rather a hyperreality to satisfy the desire to see the real thing. Tourists are in search for the authenticity when visiting but these events that appear as one thing are not truly authentic; it is a symbol. In a postmodern perspective, tourists can enjoy these staged attractions and activities to get a more realistic experience. Examples include taking photos with a character or actor that plays the part of an authentic local or buying souvenirs at a market. Some tourists don’t notice these events because they are made to distract you from everyday life.

Celebrities Celebrity is a condition of fame and broad public recognition of a person or group as a result of the attention given to them by mass media. An individual may attain a celebrity status from having great wealth, their participation in sports ...

Boorstin has viewed celebrities as ‘human pseudo-events’, specifically in American culture thought history, since the 1800s. Celebrities have an image that represents an ideal life, an elite status and persona that is separate from everyday life. They are seen as glamorous but with a distance from the public sphere. There are some celebrities that portray a life that seems unattainable by many, then there are celebrities who are famous for actual achievements. Examples of pseudo-events created by celebrities range from anything from signing autographs, making public appearances, holding an exclusive event, or doing projects with charities. Non-scientific Internet polls and news Non-scientific Internet polls have been increasingly popular as a conversational tool on websites and major news outlets. This method is used to invite participants to take a survey, which can generate thousands of responses or more. These polls are self-selected and can be used to drive more traffic to the website, which can cause the need for more news and generate more revenue. The large volume of responses can improve the image that is being reported rather than the news content itself. Participants can believe that their participation in these polls can contribute to the reported online survey's topic. Jack Fuller, President of Tribune Publishing Company, has touched on this topic and how this form of gathering information for non-scientific reasons can be inauthentic. The use of these online polls as news content can place scientific polls used for research to be equally as legitimate when that is often not the case. Boorstin has noted that these pseudo-events' main goals are meeting increased demands for more news and revenue generation.

References

Additional sources

*Bösch, Frank
''European Media Events''

European History Online European History Online (''Europäische Geschichte Online, EGO'') is an academic website that publishes articles on the history of Europe between the period of 1450 and 1950 according to the principle of open access. Organisation EGO is issued ...

, Mainz:

Institute of European History The Leibniz Institute of European History (IEG) in Mainz, Germany, is an independent, public research institute that carries out and promotes historical research on the foundations of Europe in the early and late Modern period. Though autonomous i ...

, 2010, retrieved: June 13, 2012. *Daniel Dayan and Elihu Katz, ''Media Events: The Live Broadcasting of History'' (Cambridge:

Harvard University Press Harvard University Press (HUP) is a publishing house established on January 13, 1913, as a division of Harvard University, and focused on academic publishing. It is a member of the Association of American University Presses. After the retirem ...

, 1992) *Evans. (2018). Media events in contexts of transition: sites of hope, disruption and protest. Media, Culture & Society, 40(1), 139–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443717726012 *Strand, Forssberg, H., Klingberg, T., & Norrelgen, F. (2008). Phonological working memory with auditory presentation of pseudo-words — An event related fMRI Study. Brain Research, 1212(30 May), 48–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2008.02.097 *Morgan. (2011). Celebrity: Academic “Pseudo-Event” or a Useful Concept for Historians? Cultural and Social History, 8(1), 95–114. https://doi.org/10.2752/147800411X12858412044474

External links