Auguste-Maurice Barrès (; 19 August 1862 – 4 December 1923) was a French novelist, journalist, philosopher, and politician. Spending some time in Italy, he became a figure in

French literature French literature () generally speaking, is literature written in the French language, particularly by French people, French citizens; it may also refer to literature written by people living in France who speak traditional languages of Franc ...

with the release of his work '' The Cult of the Self'' in 1888. He was elected a member of the

Académie Française An academy (Attic Greek: Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of tertiary education. The name traces back to Plato's school of philosophy, founded approximately 386 BC at Akademia, a sanctuary of Athena, the go ...

in 1906. In politics, Barrès was first elected to the

Chamber of Deputies The chamber of deputies is the lower house in many bicameral legislatures and the sole house in some unicameral legislatures. Description Historically, French Chamber of Deputies was the lower house of the French Parliament during the Bourb ...

in 1889 as a Boulangist and would play a prominent political role for the rest of his life. He presided over the

Ligue des Patriotes The League of Patriots () was a French far-right league, founded in 1882 by the nationalist poet Paul Déroulède, historian Henri Martin and politician Félix Faure. The Ligue began as a non-partisan nationalist league, supported among other ...

from 1914 until his death in 1923.

Biography

Barrès was associated in his literary works with

Symbolism Symbolism or symbolist may refer to: *Symbol, any object or sign that represents an idea Arts *Artistic symbol, an element of a literary, visual, or other work of art that represents an idea ** Color symbolism, the use of colors within various c ...

, a movement which had equivalence with British

Aestheticism Aestheticism (also known as the aesthetic movement) was an art movement in the late 19th century that valued the appearance of literature, music, fonts and the arts over their functions. According to Aestheticism, art should be produced to b ...

and Italian Decadentism; indeed he was a close associate of Gabriele d'Annunzio representing the latter. As the name of his trilogy suggests, his works glorified a humanistic love of the self and he also flirted with

occult The occult () is a category of esoteric or supernatural beliefs and practices which generally fall outside the scope of organized religion and science, encompassing phenomena involving a 'hidden' or 'secret' agency, such as magic and mysti ...

mysticisms in his youth. The Dreyfus affair saw an ideological shift from a liberal individualism rooted in the French Revolution to a more organic and traditional concept of the nation. He also became a leading anti-Dreyfusard popularising the term '' nationalisme'' to describe his views. He stood on a platform of "Nationalism and Protectionism.". Politically, he became involved with various groups such as the ''

'' of Paul Déroulède, of which he became the leader in 1914. Barrès was close to

Charles Maurras Charles-Marie-Photius Maurras (; ; 20 April 1868 – 16 November 1952) was a French author, politician, poet and critic. He was an organiser and principal philosopher of ''Action Française'', a political movement that was monarchist, corporatis ...

, founder of the monarchist party ''

Action Française ''Action Française'' (, AF; ) is a French far-right monarchist and nationalist political movement. The name was also given to a journal associated with the movement, '' L'Action Française'', sold by its own youth organization, the Camelot ...

''. Though he remained a republican, Barrès developed a strong influence on various French monarchists of his day, as well as various other figures. During the

First World War World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...

, he championed the

Union Sacrée The Sacred Union (, ) was a political truce in the French Third Republic in which the left-wing agreed during World War I not to oppose the government or call any strikes. Made in the name of patriotism, it stood in opposition to the pledge made ...

political truce. In later life, Barrès returned to the

Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...

faith: he was involved in a campaign to restore French church buildings and helped establish 24 June as a national day of remembrance for St.

Joan of Arc Joan of Arc ( ; ; – 30 May 1431) is a patron saint of France, honored as a defender of the French nation for her role in the siege of Orléans and her insistence on the Coronation of the French monarch, coronation of Charles VII o ...

Early years

Born at

Charmes, Vosges Charmes () is a commune in the Vosges department in Grand Est in northeastern France. It is located on the river Moselle and the Canal de l'Est. It was extensively destroyed both in the First and Second World Wars. A pleasant stop for mobile h ...

, he received his secondary education at the ''

lycée In France, secondary education is in two stages: * ''Collèges'' () cater for the first four years of secondary education from the ages of 11 to 14. * ''Lycées'' () provide a three-year course of further secondary education for students between ...

'' of Nancy, attending there the lessons of Auguste Burdeau, later pictured as social climber Paul Bouteiller in '' Les Déracinés''. In 1883 continued his legal studies in Paris. Establishing himself at first in the , he became acquainted with

Leconte de Lisle Charles Marie René Leconte de Lisle (; 22 October 1818 – 17 July 1894) was a French poet of the Parnassian movement. He is traditionally known by his surname only, Leconte de Lisle. Biography Leconte de Lisle was born on the French overseas i ...

's cenacle and with the

symbolist Symbolism or symbolist may refer to: *Symbol, any object or sign that represents an idea Arts *Artistic symbol, an element of a literary, visual, or other work of art that represents an idea ** Color symbolism, the use of colors within various c ...

s in the 1880s, even meeting

Victor Hugo Victor-Marie Hugo, vicomte Hugo (; 26 February 1802 – 22 May 1885) was a French Romanticism, Romantic author, poet, essayist, playwright, journalist, human rights activist and politician. His most famous works are the novels ''The Hunchbac ...

once. He had already started contributing to the monthly periodical, ''Jeune France'' (''Young France''), and he now issued a periodical of his own, ''Les Taches d'encre'', which survived for only a few months. After four years of journalism he settled in Italy, where he wrote ''Sous l'œil des barbares'' (1888), the first volume of a ''trilogie du moi'' (also called ''Le Culte du moi'' or '' The Cult of the Self''), completed by ''Un Homme libre'' (1889), and ''Le Jardin de Bérénice'' (1891). ''The Cult of the Self'' trilogy was influenced by

Romanticism Romanticism (also known as the Romantic movement or Romantic era) was an artistic and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century. The purpose of the movement was to advocate for the importance of subjec ...

, and also made an apology of the pleasure of the senses. He supplemented these apologies for his narcissism with ''L'Ennemi des lois'' (1892), and with an admirable volume of impressions of travel, ''Du sang, de la volupté, de la mort'' (1893). Barrès wrote his early books in an elaborate and often very obscure style. The Comédie Française produced his play ''Une Journée parlementaire'' in 1894. A year after establishing himself in Neuilly, he began his trilogy in 1897, ''Le Roman de l'énergie nationale'' (''Novel of the National Energy''), with the publication of ''Les Déracinés''.Biographical notice
French National Education website (Nancy) In this second major trilogy, he superated his early individualism with a patriotic fidelity to the fatherland and an

organicist Organicism is the philosophical position that states that the universe and its various parts (including human societies) ought to be considered alive and naturally ordered, much like a living organism.Gilbert, S. F., and S. Sarkar. 2000. "Embra ...

conception of the

nation A nation is a type of social organization where a collective Identity (social science), identity, a national identity, has emerged from a combination of shared features across a given population, such as language, history, ethnicity, culture, t ...

. Affected by the Dreyfus Affair, and finding himself on the side of the Anti-Dreyfusards, Barrès played a leading role alongside

, which initiated his shift to the political right; Barrès oriented himself towards a lyrical form of nationalism, founded on the cult of the earth and the dead ("''la terre et les morts''", "earth and the dead"—'' see below for details''). The ''Roman de l'énergie nationale'' trilogy makes a plea for local patriotism,

militarism Militarism is the belief or the desire of a government or a people that a state should maintain a strong military capability and to use it aggressively to expand national interests and/or values. It may also imply the glorification of the mili ...

, the faith to one's roots and to one's family, and for the preservation of the distinctive qualities of the old French provinces. ''Les Déracinés'' narrates the adventures of seven young Lorrainers who set out to conquer fortune in Paris. Six of them survive in the second novel of the trilogy, ''L'Appel au soldat'' (1900), which gives the history of Boulangism; the sequel, ''Leurs figures'' (1902), deals with the Panama scandals. Later works include: *''Scènes et doctrines du nationalisme ''(1902) *''Les Amitiés françaises'' (1903), in which he urges the inculcation of patriotism by the early study of national history *''Ce que j'ai vu à Rennes'' (1904) *''Au service de l'Allemagne'' (1905), the experiences of an Alsatian conscript in a German regiment *''Le Voyage de Sparte'' (1906). He presented himself in 1905 to the

Académie française An academy (Attic Greek: Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of tertiary education. The name traces back to Plato's school of philosophy, founded approximately 386 BC at Akademia, a sanctuary of Athena, the go ...

, but was supplanted by Etienne Lamy. He then tried again, but inclined himself before the candidacy of the former Minister Alexandre Ribot. But he was finally elected the next year, gaining 25 voices against 8 to Edmond Hauraucourt and one to Jean Aicart on 25 January 1906. Barrès was also a friend since his youth of the occultist Stanislas de Guaita, and was attracted by Asia,

sufism Sufism ( or ) is a mysticism, mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic Tazkiyah, purification, spirituality, ritualism, and Asceticism#Islam, asceticism. Practitioners of Sufism are r ...

and

shi'ism Shia Islam is the second-largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad in Islam, Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political Succession to Muhammad, successor (caliph) and as the spiritual le ...

. But he returned in his later years to the Catholic faith, engaging in '' L'Echo de Paris'' a campaign in favour of the restoration of the churches of France. His son Philippe Barrès followed him in a journalism career.

Political activism

As a young man, Barrès carried his Romantic and individualist theory of the Ego into politics as an ardent partisan of General Boulanger, locating himself in the more

populist Populism is a contested concept used to refer to a variety of political stances that emphasize the idea of the " common people" and often position this group in opposition to a perceived elite. It is frequently associated with anti-establis ...

side of the heterogenous Boulangist coalition. Pascal Ory, "La nouvelle droite fin de siècle" in ''Nouvelle histoire des idées politiques'' (dir. P. Ory), Hachette Pluriel, 1987, pp. 457–465. He directed a Boulangist paper at Nancy, and was elected deputy in 1889, at the age of 27, under a platform of "Nationalism, Protectionism, and Socialism", retaining his seat in the legislature until 1893, when he was defeated under the etiquette of "National Republican and Socialist" (''Républicain nationaliste et socialiste''). From 1889, Barrès's activism overshadowed his literary activities, although he tried to maintain both. He shifted however to the right-wing during the Dreyfus Affair, becoming a leading mouthpiece, alongside

, of the Anti-Dreyfusard side. The Socialist leader

Léon Blum André Léon Blum (; 9 April 1872 – 30 March 1950) was a French socialist politician and three-time Prime Minister of France. As a Jew, he was heavily influenced by the Dreyfus affair of the late 19th century. He was a disciple of socialist l ...

tried to convince him to join the Dreyfusards, but Barrès refused and wrote several anti-Semitic pamphlets. He wrote, "That Dreyfus is guilty, I deduce not from the facts themselves, but from his race." Alain-Gérard Slama (professor at

Sciences-Po Sciences Po () or Sciences Po Paris, also known as the Paris Institute of Political Studies (), is a public research university located in Paris, France, that holds the status of ''grande école'' and the legal status of . The university's unde ...

)
"Maurras (1858 (sic)-1952): ou le mythe d'une droite révolutionnaire"
, article first published in ''

L'Histoire ''L'Histoire'' is a monthly mainstream French magazine dedicated to historical studies, recognized by peers as the most important historical popular magazine (as opposed to specific university journals or less scientific popular historical magaz ...

'' in 2002 Barrès's anti-Jewishness found its roots both in the scientific racial contemporary theories and on

Biblical exegesis Biblical studies is the academic application of a set of diverse disciplines to the study of the Bible, with ''Bible'' referring to the books of the canonical Hebrew Bible in mainstream Jewish usage and the Christian Bible including the can ...

. He founded the short-lived review '' La Cocarde'' (''The

Cockade A cockade is a knot of ribbons, or other circular- or oval-shaped symbol of distinctive colours which is usually worn on a hat or cap. The word cockade derives from the French ''cocarde'', from Old French ''coquarde'', feminine of ''coquard'' (va ...

'') in 1894 (September 1894 – March 1895) to defend his ideas, attempting to bridge the gap between the far-left and the far-right. The ''Cocarde'', nationalist, anti-parliamentarist and anti-foreign, included a diverse collection of contributors from a wide variety of backgrounds (monarchists, socialists,

anarchists Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that seeks to abolish all institutions that perpetuate authority, coercion, or hierarchy, primarily targeting the state and capitalism. Anarchism advocates for the replacement of the state w ...

, Jews, Protestants), including Frédéric Amouretti,

, René Boylesve and Fernand Pelloutier. He was again beaten during the 1896 elections in Neuilly, as a candidate of the Socialist leader

Jean Jaurès Auguste Marie Joseph Jean Léon Jaurès (3 September 185931 July 1914), commonly referred to as Jean Jaurès (; ), was a French socialist leader. Initially a Moderate Republican, he later became a social democrat and one of the first possibi ...

, and then again in 1897 as a nationalist anti-Semitic candidate, having broken with the left-wing during the Dreyfus Affair. Barrès then assumed the leadership of the Ligue de la Patrie française (League of the French Fatherland), before taking membership in the ''

'' (Patriot League) of Paul Déroulède. In 1914, he became the leader of the Patriot League. Close to the nationalist writer

, founder of the monarchist

Action française ''Action Française'' (, AF; ) is a French far-right monarchist and nationalist political movement. The name was also given to a journal associated with the movement, '' L'Action Française'', sold by its own youth organization, the Camelot ...

movement, Barrès refused however to endorse monarchist ideas, although he demonstrated sympathy throughout his life for the Action française. Most of the later monarchist theorists ( Jacques Bainville, Henri Vaugeois, Léon Daudet, Henri Massis,

Jacques Maritain Jacques Maritain (; 18 November 1882 – 28 April 1973) was a French Catholic philosopher. Raised as a Protestant, he was agnostic before converting to Catholicism in 1906. An author of more than 60 books, he helped to revive Thomas Aqui ...

Georges Bernanos Louis Émile Clément Georges Bernanos (; 20 February 1888 – 5 July 1948) was a French author, and a soldier in World War I. A Catholic with monarchist leanings, he was critical of elitist thought and was opposed to what he identified as d ...

Thierry Maulnier Thierry Maulnier (born Jacques Talagrand; 1 October 1909 – 9 January 1988) was a French journalist, essayist, dramatist, and literary critic who was born in Alès and died in Marnes-la-Coquette. He was married to theatre director Marcelle ...

...) have recognised their debt toward Barrès, who also inspired several generations of writers (among which Montherlant, Malraux, Mauriac and

Aragon Aragon ( , ; Spanish and ; ) is an autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. In northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces of Spain, ...

). Barrès was elected deputy of the Seine in 1906, and retained his seat until his death. He sat at that time among the Entente républicaine démocratique conservative party. In 1908, he opposed in Parliament his friend and political opponent

, refusing the Socialist leader's will to Pantheonize the writer

Émile Zola Émile Édouard Charles Antoine Zola (, ; ; 2 April 184029 September 1902) was a French novelist, journalist, playwright, the best-known practitioner of the literary school of Naturalism (literature), naturalism, and an important contributor to ...

. Despite his political views, he was one of the first to show his respect to Jaurès' remains after his assassination on the eve of

World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...

. During World War I, Barrès was one of the proponents of the

, which earned him the nickname "nightingale of bloodshed" ("rossignol des carnages"). The '' Canard enchaîné'' satirical newspaper called him the "chief of the tribe of brainwashers" ("chef de la tribu des bourreurs de crâne").Biographical notice
of Barrès on the

's website His personal notes showed however that he himself did not always believe in his purported war optimism, being at times close to defeatism. During the war Barrès also partly came back on the mistakes of his youth, by paying tribute to French Jews in ''Les familles spirituelles de la France'', where he placed them as one of the four elements of the "national genius", alongside Traditionalists, Protestants and Socialists – thus opposing himself to Maurras who saw in them the "four confederate states" of "Anti-France". After World War I, Barrès demanded the annexation of

Luxembourg Luxembourg, officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, is a landlocked country in Western Europe. It is bordered by Belgium to the west and north, Germany to the east, and France on the south. Its capital and most populous city, Luxembour ...

into the French Republic, and also sought to increase French influence in the

Rhineland The Rhineland ( ; ; ; ) is a loosely defined area of Western Germany along the Rhine, chiefly Middle Rhine, its middle section. It is the main industrial heartland of Germany because of its many factories, and it has historic ties to the Holy ...

. On 24 June 1920, the National Assembly adopted his draft aiming to establish a national day in remembrance of

Nationalism

Barrès is considered, alongside

, as one of the main thinkers of

ethnic nationalism Ethnic nationalism, also known as ethnonationalism, is a form of nationalism wherein the nation and nationality are defined in terms of ethnicity, with emphasis on an ethnocentric (and in some cases an ethnostate/ethnocratic) approach to variou ...

at the turn of the century in France, associated with

Revanchism Revanchism (, from ''revanche'', "revenge") is the political manifestation of the will to reverse the territorial losses which are incurred by a country, frequently after a war or after a social movement. As a term, ''revanchism'' originated i ...

—the desire to reconquer the Alsace-Lorraine, annexed by the newly created

German Empire The German Empire (),; ; World Book, Inc. ''The World Book dictionary, Volume 1''. World Book, Inc., 2003. p. 572. States that Deutsches Reich translates as "German Realm" and was a former official name of Germany. also referred to as Imperia ...

at the end of the 1871

Franco-Prussian War The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the War of 1870, was a conflict between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia. Lasting from 19 July 1870 to 28 Janua ...

(Barrès was aged 8 at that time). In fact, he himself popularised the word "nationalism" in French. This has been noted by Zeev Sternhell,

Michel Winock Michel Winock (born 19 March 1937) is a French people, French historian, specializing in the history of the French Republic, intellectual movements, antisemitism, nationalism and the far right movements of France. He is a ''professeur des univers ...

(who titled the first part of his book, ''Le Siècle des intellectuels'', "Les Années Barrès" ("The Barrès Years"), followed by ''Les Années

André Gide André Paul Guillaume Gide (; 22 November 1869 – 19 February 1951) was a French writer and author whose writings spanned a wide variety of styles and topics. He was awarded the 1947 Nobel Prize in Literature. Gide's career ranged from his begi ...

'' and ''Les Années

Jean-Paul Sartre Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (, ; ; 21 June 1905 – 15 April 1980) was a French philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer, and literary criticism, literary critic, considered a leading figure in 20th ...

''), Pierre-André Taguieff, etc. He shared as common points with Paul Bourget his disdain for

utilitarianism In ethical philosophy, utilitarianism is a family of normative ethical theories that prescribe actions that maximize happiness and well-being for the affected individuals. In other words, utilitarian ideas encourage actions that lead to the ...

and liberalism. Opposed to

Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Republic of Geneva, Genevan philosopher (''philosophes, philosophe''), writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment through ...

's theory of

social contract In moral and political philosophy, the social contract is an idea, theory, or model that usually, although not always, concerns the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual. Conceptualized in the Age of Enlightenment, it ...

, Barrès considered the 'Nation' (which he used to replace the 'People') as already historically founded: it did not need a "

general will In political philosophy, the general will () is the will of the people as a whole. The term was made famous by 18th-century Genevan philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It can be considered as an early, informal predecessor to the idea of a social ...

" to establish itself, thus also contrasting with

Ernest Renan Joseph Ernest Renan (; ; 27 February 18232 October 1892) was a French Orientalist and Semitic scholar, writing on Semitic languages and civilizations, historian of religion, philologist, philosopher, biblical scholar, and critic. He wrote wo ...

's definition of the Nation.Brigitte Krulic (professor at University of Paris-X)
Le peuple français chez Maurice Barrès: une entité insaisissable entre unité et diversité
2 February 2007 (Paper read during the conference ''« 'Peuple' et 'Volk' : réalité de fait, postulat juridique »'' organized at the University of Paris X-Nanterre on 10 December 2005 Much closer to

Herder A herder is a pastoralism, pastoral worker responsible for the care and management of a herd or flock of domestic animals, usually on extensive management, open pasture. It is particularly associated with nomadic pastoralism, nomadic or transhuma ...

and

Fichte Johann Gottlieb Fichte (; ; 19 May 1762 – 29 January 1814) was a German philosopher who became a founding figure of the philosophical movement known as German idealism, which developed from the theoretical and ethical writings of Immanuel Kan ...

than to Renan in his definition of the Nation, Barrès opposed French centralism (as did Maurras), as he considered the Nation to be a multiplicity of local allegiances, first to the family, the village, the region, and ultimately to the

nation-state A nation state, or nation-state, is a political entity in which the state (a centralized political organization ruling over a population within a territory) and the nation (a community based on a common identity) are (broadly or ideally) con ...

. Barrès, for this reason, frequently visited and praised

Proudhon Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (, ; ; 1809 – 19 January 1865) was a French anarchist, socialist, philosopher, and economist who founded mutualist philosophy and is considered by many to be the "father of anarchism". He was the first person to ca ...

federalism Federalism is a mode of government that combines a general level of government (a central or federal government) with a regional level of sub-unit governments (e.g., provinces, State (sub-national), states, Canton (administrative division), ca ...

. Influenced by

Edmund Burke Edmund Burke (; 12 January ew Style, NS1729 – 9 July 1797) was an Anglo-Irish Politician, statesman, journalist, writer, literary critic, philosopher, and parliamentary orator who is regarded as the founder of the Social philosophy, soc ...

, Frédéric Le Play, G.W.F. Hegel, and

Hippolyte Taine Hippolyte Adolphe Taine (21 April 1828 – 5 March 1893) was a French historian, critic and philosopher. He was the chief theoretical influence on French naturalism, a major proponent of sociological positivism and one of the first practitione ...

, he developed an

conception of the Nation which contrasted with the universalism of the 1789

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (), set by France's National Constituent Assembly in 1789, is a human and civil rights document from the French Revolution; the French title can be translated in the modern era as "Decl ...

. According to Barrès, the People is not founded by an act of autonomy, but find its origins in the earth (le sol), history (institutions, life and material conditions) and traditions and inheritance ("the dead"). His early individualism was quickly superseded by an organicist theory of the social link, in which "the individual is nothing, society is everything". Barrès feared miscegenation of modern times, represented by Paris, claiming against Michelet that it jeopardised the unity of the Nation. The Nation was to be balanced between various local nationalities (he spoke of the "Lorraine nationality" as much as of the "French nationality") through decentralisation and the call for a leader, giving a

Bonapartist Bonapartism () is the political ideology supervening from Napoleon Bonaparte and his followers and successors. The term was used in the narrow sense to refer to people who hoped to restore the House of Bonaparte and its style of government. In ...

aspect to his thought which explained his attraction for the General Boulanger and his opposition to

liberal democracy Liberal democracy, also called Western-style democracy, or substantive democracy, is a form of government that combines the organization of a democracy with ideas of liberalism, liberal political philosophy. Common elements within a liberal dem ...

. He pleaded for a

direct democracy Direct democracy or pure democracy is a form of democracy in which the Election#Electorate, electorate directly decides on policy initiatives, without legislator, elected representatives as proxies, as opposed to the representative democracy m ...

and personalisation of power, as well as for the implementation of

popular referendum A popular referendum, depending on jurisdiction also known as a citizens' veto, people's veto, veto referendum, citizen referendum, abrogative referendum, rejective referendum, suspensive referendum, and statute referendum,Maija SetäläReferend ...

s as done in

Switzerland Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland ...

. In this nationalist frame, anti-Semitism was to be the cohesive factor for a right-wing mass movement. Contrary to popular belief, Maurice Barrès never used the term “le grand remplacement” reat replacement either in his novel "L'appel au soldat" or anywhere else. However he did make use of the underlying concept, namely that the French national character was being harmed by immigration of certain ethnic groups.

Hispanophilia

Barrès was a noted hispanophile. Influenced by the romantic mythification of Spain, he described the country as "an Africa leaving your soul with a sort of furor so fast as chilli does in your mouth". Always passionate about the "South" and "

Orient The Orient is a term referring to the East in relation to Europe, traditionally comprising anything belonging to the Eastern world. It is the antonym of the term ''Occident'', which refers to the Western world. In English, it is largely a meto ...

", he emphasized in his work the period of Moorish domination. He interpreted the Spain of the time as a nation refractory to the attempts of economic and bureaucratic rationalization threatening his own country. He visited Spain in 1892, 1893 and 1902, capturing his vision of the country in his writings, taking a particular interest in Toledo.

Dada and Barrès

The

Dada Dada () or Dadaism was an anti-establishment art movement that developed in 1915 in the context of the Great War and the earlier anti-art movement. Early centers for dadaism included Zürich and Berlin. Within a few years, the movement had s ...

ists organised in spring 1921 the trial of Barrès, charged with an "attack on the safety of the mind" ("attentat à la sûreté de l'esprit") and sentenced him to 20 years of forced labour. This fictitious trial also marked the dissolution of Dada - its founders, among whom was

Tristan Tzara Tristan Tzara (; ; ; born Samuel or Samy Rosenstock, also known as S. Samyro; – 25 December 1963) was a Romanian and French avant-garde poet, essayist and performance artist. Also active as a journalist, playwright, literary and art critic, c ...

, refusing any form of justice even if organised by Dada.

Final years and death

An Orientalist romance, '' Un jardin sur l'Oronte'' (A Garden on the Orontes)—which would be the basis of an opera of the same name—was published in 1922, triggering what would be called (the Orontes Quarrel). Barrès died in Neuilly-sur-Seine on 4 December 1923.

Works in English translation

''The Undying Spirit of France,''
Yale University Press, 1917.
"Young Soldiers of France"
In ''The War and the Spirit of Youth,'' Atlantic Monthly Company, 1917. * '' Colette Baudoche: The Story of a Young Girl of Metz'', George H. Doran Company, 1918.
"Officers and Gentlemen"
''The Atlantic Monthly'', Vol. CXXI, 1918.
''The Faith of France''
Houghton Mifflin & Company, 1918. * '' The Sacred Hill'', The Macaulay Company, 1929. * "Uprooted". In ''The World's Greatest Books,'' W. H. Wise & Co., 1941.

Other

* Massia Bibikoff
''Our Indians at Marseilles''
with an Introduction by Maurice Barrès, Smith, Elder and Company, 1915. * Georges Lafond
''Covered with Mud and Glory''
with a Preface by Maurice Barrès, Small, Maynard & Company, 1918.

References

In foreign languages

* René Jacquet (1900)
''Notre Maître Maurice Barrès''
Librairie Nilsson. * J. Ernest Charles (1907)
''La Carrière de Maurice Barrès, Académicien''
E. Sansot & Cie. * René Gillouin (1907)
''Maurice Barrès''
E. Sansot & Cie. * Henri Massis (1909)
''La Pensée de Maurice Barrès''
Mercure de France. * Nicolas Beauduin (1910)
"L'Evolution de Maurice Barrès"
''Quelques Uns,'' No. 1. * Jean Herluison (1911)
''Maurice Barrès et le Problème de l'Ordre''
Nouvelle Librairie Nationale. * Jacques Jary (1912)
''Essai sur l'Art et la Psychologie de Maurice Barrès''
Emile-Paul. * Paul Bourget (1924). ''La Leçon de Barrès,'' À la Cité des Livres. * François Mauriac (1945). ''La Rencontre avec Barrès,'' La Table Ronde. * Albert Garreau (1945). ''Barrès, Défenseur de la Civilisation,'' Éditions des Loisirs. * Sarah Vajda (2000). ''Maurice Barrès,'' Flammarion.

External links

* *
Barrès's Speeches at the Académie française

(audio)

Barrès, Maurice (1862–1923)
at Gallica * {{DEFAULTSORT:Barres, Maurice 1862 births 1923 deaths People from Charmes, Vosges Barrès family French Roman Catholics Boulangists Republican Federation politicians Members of the 5th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic Members of the 9th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic Members of the 10th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic Members of the 11th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic Members of the 12th Chamber of Deputies of the French Third Republic Members of Parliament for Meurthe-et-Moselle Members of Parliament for Seine Writers from Grand Est French political philosophers French nationalists 19th-century French novelists 20th-century French novelists 20th-century French male writers Antisemitism in France Antidreyfusards Members of the Ligue des Patriotes Members of the Ligue de la patrie française Members of the Académie Française French people of World War I World War I politicians