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The March 1st Movement, also known as the Sam-il (3-1) Movement (
Hangul The Korean alphabet, known as Hangul, . Hangul may also be written as following South Korea's standard Romanization. ( ) in South Korea and Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea, is the modern official writing system for the Korean language. The l ...
: 삼일 운동;
Hanja Hanja (Hangul: ; Hanja: , ), alternatively known as Hancha, are Chinese characters () used in the writing of Korean. Hanja was used as early as the Gojoseon period, the first ever Korean kingdom. (, ) refers to Sino-Korean vocabulary, ...
: 三一 運動), was a protest movement by Korean people and students calling for independence from Japan in 1919, and protesting forced assimilation into the Japanese way of life. Thirty-three Korean cultural and religious leaders issued a proclamation, supported by thousands of students and civilians in Seoul. There were over 1000 demonstrations in many other cities. They were brutally suppressed, with Korean historian
Park Eun-sik Park Eunsik (September 30, 1859 - November 1, 1925) was a Korean historian and the second President of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai during part of 1925. Soon after the impeachment of Syngman Rhee from the pres ...
reporting about 7,500 killed and 16,000 wounded, and 46,000 arrested. These were among the earliest public displays of
Korean resistance The Korean independence movement was a military and diplomatic campaign to achieve the independence of Korea from Japan. After the Japanese annexation of Korea in 1910, Korea's domestic resistance peaked in the March 1st Movement of 1919, whic ...
during the
rule Rule or ruling may refer to: Education * Royal University of Law and Economics (RULE), a university in Cambodia Human activity * The exercise of political or personal control by someone with authority or power * Business rule, a rule pert ...
of
Korea Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic ...
by
Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the n ...
from 1910 to 1945. The event occurred on March 1, 1919, hence the movement's name, literally meaning "Three-One Movement" or "March First Movement" in
Korean Korean may refer to: People and culture * Koreans, ethnic group originating in the Korean Peninsula * Korean cuisine * Korean culture * Korean language **Korean alphabet, known as Hangul or Chosŏn'gŭl **Korean dialects and the Jeju language ** ...
. It is also sometimes referred to as the Man-se Demonstrations (). Today, March 1st is celebrated as a national holiday in the
Republic of Korea South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula and sharing a land border with North Korea. Its western border is formed by the Yellow Sea, while its ea ...
(South Korea).


Background

The Samil Movement arose in reaction to the repressive nature of colonial occupation under the
de facto ''De facto'' ( ; , "in fact") describes practices that exist in reality, whether or not they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms. It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with '' de jure'' ("by l ...
military rule of the Japanese Empire following 1910, and was inspired by the "
Fourteen Points U.S. President Woodrow Wilson The Fourteen Points was a statement of principles for peace that was to be used for peace negotiations in order to end World War I. The principles were outlined in a January 8, 1918 speech on war aims and peace terms ...
" outlining the right of national "
self-determination The right of a people to self-determination is a cardinal principle in modern international law (commonly regarded as a '' jus cogens'' rule), binding, as such, on the United Nations as authoritative interpretation of the Charter's norms. It sta ...
", which was proclaimed by President
Woodrow Wilson Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856February 3, 1924) was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th president of the United States from 1913 to 1921. A member of the Democratic Party, Wilson served as the president of ...
at the Paris Peace Conference in January 1918. After hearing news of Wilson's speech, Korean students studying in
Tokyo Tokyo (; ja, 東京, , ), officially the Tokyo Metropolis ( ja, 東京都, label=none, ), is the capital and largest city of Japan. Formerly known as Edo, its metropolitan area () is the most populous in the world, with an estimated 37.46 ...
published a statement demanding freedom from colonial rule. Former
Emperor Gojong Gojong (; 8 September 1852 – 21 January 1919) was the monarch of Korea from 1864 to 1907. He reigned as the last King of Joseon from 1864 to 1897, and as the first Emperor of Korea from 1897 until his forced abdication in 1907. He is known ...
died on January 21, 1919. There was widespread suspicion that he had been poisoned, which was thought credible since previous attempts (the "coffee plot") by Kim Hong-nuik, the former Russian interpreter of the Russian Legation, were well-known.


Events in Korea

At 2 p.m. on March 1, 1919, 33 activists who formed the core of the Samil Movement convened at Taehwagwan Restaurant in
Seoul Seoul (; ; ), officially known as the Seoul Special City, is the Capital city, capital and largest metropolis of South Korea.Before 1972, Seoul was the ''de jure'' capital of the North Korea, Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea ...
; they read out loud the
Korean Declaration of Independence The Declaration of Independence is the statement adopted by the 33 ethnic representatives meeting at Taehwagwan, the restaurant located in Insa-dong, Jongno District, Seoul on March 1, 1919, after World War I, which announced that Korea would ...
, which had been drawn up by historian
Choe Nam-seon Choe Nam-seon (April 26, 1890 – October 10, 1957), also known by the Japanese language, Japanese pronunciation of his name Sai Nanzen, was a prominent modern Korean historian, pioneering poet, and publisher, and a leading member of the Korean i ...
. The activists initially planned to assemble at Tapgol Park in downtown Seoul, but chose a more private location out of fear that the gathering might turn into a riot. The leaders of the movement signed the document and sent a copy to the
Governor General Governor-general (plural ''governors-general''), or governor general (plural ''governors general''), is the title of an office-holder. In the context of governors-general and former British colonies, governors-general are appointed as viceroy t ...
. The movement leaders telephoned the central police station to inform them of their actions and were publicly arrested afterwards. Before the formal declaration, Korea also published and broadcast the following complaints, in order to be heard by the Japanese people through papers and media: * Discrimination by the government when employing Koreans versus Japanese people; they claimed that no Koreans held important positions in the government. * A disparity in the quality of education being offered to Korean and Japanese people. * Mistreatment and open disregard of Koreans by the Japanese occupiers. * Political officials, both Korean and Japanese, were arrogant. * No special treatment for the Korean upper class or scholars. * The administrative processes were too complicated and new laws were passed too frequently for the general public to follow. * Too much forced labor that was not desired by the public. * Taxes were too heavy and the Korean people were paying more than before, while getting the same amount of services. * Land continued to be confiscated by the Japanese people for personal reasons. * Korean village teachers were being forced out of their jobs because the Japanese were trying to suppress Korean culture and teachings. * Korea's resources and labor had been exploited for the benefit for the Japanese. They argued that while Koreans were working towards development, they did not reap the benefits of their own work. These grievances were highly influenced by Wilson's declaration of the principle of self determination as outlined in his "
Fourteen Points U.S. President Woodrow Wilson The Fourteen Points was a statement of principles for peace that was to be used for peace negotiations in order to end World War I. The principles were outlined in a January 8, 1918 speech on war aims and peace terms ...
" speech. Massive crowds assembled in Pagoda Park, Seoul to hear a student, Chung Jae-yong, read the declaration publicly. Afterwards, the gathering formed into a peaceable procession, which the Japanese military police attempted to suppress. Special delegates associated with the movement also read copies of the independence proclamation from appointed places throughout the country at 2 p.m. on that same day. As the processions continued to grow, the Japanese local and military police could not control the crowds. The panicked Japanese officials called in military forces to quell the crowds, including the naval forces. As the public protests continued to grow, the suppression turned to violence, resulting in Japanese massacres of Koreans and other atrocities. Approximately 2,000,000 Koreans had participated in the more than 1,500 demonstrations. Several thousand Koreans were massacred by the Japanese police force and army. The frequently cited ''The Bloody History of the Korean Independence Movement'' () by
Park Eun-sik Park Eunsik (September 30, 1859 - November 1, 1925) was a Korean historian and the second President of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai during part of 1925. Soon after the impeachment of Syngman Rhee from the pres ...
reported 7,509 people killed, 15,849 wounded, and 46,303 arrested. From March 1 to April 11, Japanese officials reported 553 people killed, and more than 12,000 arrested. They said that 8 policemen and military were killed, and 158 wounded. As punishment, some of the arrested demonstrators were executed in public. Even as Japan suppressed the protestors, an independence activist named
Yu Gwansun Yu Gwan-sun (Hangul: 유관순, Hanja: 柳寬順) (December 16, 1902 – September 28, 1920) was a Korean independence activist organizer in what would come to be known as the March First Independence Movement against Imperial Japanese coloni ...
continued to show her demonstration of independence by waving the Korean flag and organizing independence declarations. She was arrested and tortured to death by Japanese police. Now often called "Big Sister Yu Gwansun", she is considered a national heroine in Korea.


Effects

The March 1st Movement provided a catalyst for the Korean Independence Movement, which was crucial to the spread of Korea's independence movement to other local governments, including
Hoengseong Hoengseong County is a county in Gangwon Province, South Korea. The roots of ''Codonopsis lanceolata'' ( ko, deodeok, script=Latn), a bonnet bellflower species, play an important role in local agriculture. The Korean Minjok Leadership Academy, a ...
. Given the ensuing suppression and hunting down of activists by the Japanese, many Korean leaders went into exile in Manchuria, Shanghai and other parts of China, where they continued their activities. The Movement was a catalyst for the establishment of the
Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea The Korean Provisional Government (KPG), formally the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, was a partially recognized Korean government-in-exile based in Shanghai, China, and later in Chongqing, during the period of Japanese c ...
in
Shanghai Shanghai (; , , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is one of the four direct-administered municipalities of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The city is located on the southern estuary of the Yangtze River, with the Huangpu River flow ...
in April 1919. It also influenced the growth of
nonviolent resistance Nonviolent resistance (NVR), or nonviolent action, sometimes called civil resistance, is the practice of achieving goals such as social change through symbolic protests, civil disobedience, economic or political noncooperation, satyagraha, cons ...
in
India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
and many other countries. The Korean Liberation Army was subsequently formed and allowed to operate in China by the Nationalist Government of China. During this period, there was a mobilization of Catholic and Protestant activists in Korea, with activism encouraged among the diaspora in the U.S., China, and Russia. The Japanese government reacted to the March 1st Movement by heightening its suppression of dissent and dismissing the Movement as the "Chosun Manse Violent Public Disorder Incident" (조선 공공 만세 폭력 사건).
Governor-General Governor-general (plural ''governors-general''), or governor general (plural ''governors general''), is the title of an office-holder. In the context of governors-general and former British colonies, governors-general are appointed as viceroy t ...
Hasegawa Yoshimichi Count was a field marshal in the Imperial Japanese Army and Japanese Governor General of Korea from 1916 to 1919. His Japanese decorations included Order of the Golden Kite (1st class) and Order of the Chrysanthemum. Biography Hasegawa was born ...
accepted responsibility for the loss of control (although most of the repressive measures leading to the uprising had been put into place by his predecessors); he was replaced by Saito Makoto. The military police were replaced by a civilian force. Limited press freedom was permitted under what was termed the 'cultural policy'. Many of these lenient policies were reversed during the
Second Sino-Japanese War The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) or War of Resistance (Chinese term) was a military conflict that was primarily waged between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. The war made up the Chinese theater of the wider Pacific Th ...
and
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
. On May 24, 1949,
South Korea South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and sharing a Korean Demilitarized Zone, land border with North Korea. Its western border is formed ...
designated March 1st as a national holiday. General Choe Hong-hui dedicated the first of the three patterns ( 삼일 틀 – Sam-il teul) trained by III-degree black belts of
Taekwondo ''Taekwondo'', ''Tae Kwon Do'' or ''Taekwon-Do'' (; ko, 태권도/跆拳道 ) is a Korean form of martial arts involving punching and kicking techniques, with emphasis on head-height kicks, spinning jump kicks, and fast kicking techniques. T ...
to the Sam-il Movement.


International reaction


United States and Korea

President Woodrow Wilson Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856February 3, 1924) was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th president of the United States from 1913 to 1921. A member of the Democratic Party, Wilson served as the president of P ...
issued his
Fourteen Points U.S. President Woodrow Wilson The Fourteen Points was a statement of principles for peace that was to be used for peace negotiations in order to end World War I. The principles were outlined in a January 8, 1918 speech on war aims and peace terms ...
in January 1918. The points included… in terms of US relations with Korea, "a free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims."Hart-Landsberg, Martin (1998). ''Korea: Division, Reunification, & U.S. Foreign Policy''. Monthly Review Press. p. 30. However, as manifested at the
Paris Peace Conference of 1919 Paris () is the capital and most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), making it the 30th most densely populated city in the world in 2020. S ...
, Wilson was not interested in challenging global power relations. Since Japan was one of the victors and Korea was its colony, a discussion of the status of Korea was not undertaken. In general, except for depriving the defeated Germany of its overseas colonies, the US did not interfere with any colonial empire. In April 1919, the
US State Department The United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the country's foreign policy and relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nati ...
told the ambassador to Japan that "the consulate n Seoulshould be extremely careful not to encourage any belief that the United States will assist the Korean nationalists in carrying out their plans and that it should not do anything which may cause Japanese authorities to suspect heAmerican Government sympathizes with the Korean nationalist movement." From April 12 to 14, 1919 the
First Korean Congress The First Korean Congress was convened by Philip Jaisohn in Philadelphia from April 12 to 14, 1919 in the Little Theater at 17th and Delancey Streets. He convened the Congress as a reaction to the March 1st Movement, one of the earliest public d ...
was convened in
Philadelphia Philadelphia, often called Philly, is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the sixth-largest city in the U.S., the second-largest city in both the Northeast megalopolis and Mid-Atlantic regions after New York City. Sinc ...
by
Philip Jaisohn Soh Jaipil or Seo Jae-pil (January 7, 1864 – January 5, 1951), also known as Philip Jaisohn, was a Korean-American political activist and physician who was a noted champion of the Korean independence movement, the first Korean naturalized citi ...
in support of the independence of Korea.


Delegation

Japan violently suppressed the March First Movement. The United States remained silent. Despite this, the
Korean National Association The Korean National Association (; Hanja: 大韓人國民會), also known as All Korea Korean National Association, was a political organization established on February 1, 1909, to fight Japan's colonial policies and occupation in Korea. It w ...
planned a three-man delegation in the United States to attend the Paris Peace Conference and attempt to represent Korea's interests. Dr. Rhee (representing Hawai'i), Rev. Chan Ho Min (representing the West Coast) and Dr. Henry Han Kyung Chung (representing the Midwest) were selected, but they were unable to attend. They encountered visa problems and feared that the delegates may not be allowed to reenter the United States. A delegation of overseas Koreans, from Japan, China, and Hawai'i, did make it to Paris. Included in this delegation was
Kim Kyu-sik Kim Kyu-sik, also spelled Kimm Kiusic (Korean language, Korean:김규식, Hanja:金奎植, January 29, 1881 – December 10, 1950), was a Korean politician and academic during the Korean independence movement and a leader of the Provisional Go ...
(김규식), a representative from the
Korean Provisional Government The Korean Provisional Government (KPG), formally the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, was a partially recognized Korean government-in-exile based in Shanghai, China, and later in Chongqing, during the period of Japanese co ...
in Shanghai. After considerable effort, he managed to arrange passage with members of the Chinese delegation to the peace conference. He traveled on a Chinese passport and under a Chinese name in order to evade the Japanese police. The Chinese were eager for the opportunity to embarrass Japan at the international forum, and several top Chinese leaders at the time, including
Sun Yat-sen Sun Yat-sen (; also known by several other names; 12 November 1866 – 12 March 1925)Singtao daily. Saturday edition. 23 October 2010. section A18. Sun Yat-sen Xinhai revolution 100th anniversary edition . was a Chinese politician who serve ...
, told U.S. diplomats that the peace conference should take up the question of Korean independence. Beyond that, however, the Chinese, locked in a struggle themselves against the Japanese, could do little for Korea. The United States did not pay substantial attention to these individuals, and the delegation was blocked from official participation as Korea was classified as a Japanese colony. The failure of the Korean nationalists to gain support from the Paris Peace Conference ended the possibility of foreign support.


Commemorations

The March 1st Movement is commemorated annually by Koreans to pay respect to those that died, fought and protested for the Korean independence movement and to celebrate Korean independence. This is done by prominent display of the
Flag of South Korea The national flag of South Korea, also known as the Taegukgi (also spelled as ''Taegeukgi'', ) and colloquially known as the flag of Korea, has three parts: a white rectangular background, a red and blue Taegeuk in its center, accompanied by fo ...
in Korean businesses and homes as well as running and participating in festivals, concerts, events and activities. The Korean Declaration of Independence is read in Tapgol Park on the day, as was done in 1919. In 2018,
Moon Jae-in Moon Jae-in (; ; born 24 January 1953) is a South Korean former politician, civil servant and lawyer who served as the 12th president of South Korea between 2017 and 2022. Prior to his presidency, he served as Senior Secretary for Civil Affairs an ...
administration established the Commission on Centennial Anniversary of March 1st Independence Movement and
Korean Provisional Government The Korean Provisional Government (KPG), formally the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, was a partially recognized Korean government-in-exile based in Shanghai, China, and later in Chongqing, during the period of Japanese co ...
. The commission was in charge of planning the year-long celebration the 100th anniversary of the March 1st movement and the establishment of the KPG. North Korea refused to participate in the joint project of the anniversary due to "scheduling issues". The commission ceased its operation in June 2020.
Seoul Metropolitan Government The Seoul Metropolitan Government is a local government of Seoul, South Korea. The mayor is elected to a four-year term by the citizens of Seoul and is responsible for the administration of the city government. The Seoul Metropolitan Government d ...
stated the March 1st movement as "the catalyst movement of democracy and the republic for Korean people."http://seoul100.kr/


See also

*
History of Korea The Lower Paleolithic era in the Korean Peninsula and Manchuria began roughly half a million years ago. Christopher J. Norton, "The Current State of Korean Paleoanthropology", (2000), ''Journal of Human Evolution'', 38: 803–825. The earlies ...
**
Korean independence movement The Korean independence movement was a military and diplomatic campaign to achieve the independence of Korea from Japan. After the Japanese annexation of Korea in 1910, Korea's domestic resistance peaked in the March 1st Movement of 1919, which ...
**
June 10th Movement The June 10th Movement or Yuk-ship Undong ("Six-10 Movement" or "June Tenth Movement"), :ko:6.10 만세운동 was one of the earliest public displays of Korean resistance under the Japanese rule. The name refers to an event that occurred on ...
**
Korea under Japanese rule Between 1910 and 1945, Korea was ruled as a part of the Empire of Japan. Joseon Korea had come into the Japanese sphere of influence with the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876; a complex coalition of the Meiji government, military, and business offic ...
**
Provisional Government of Korea The Korean Provisional Government (KPG), formally the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, was a partially recognized Korean government-in-exile based in Shanghai, China, and later in Chongqing, during the period of Japanese ...
**
Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea Anti-Japanese sentiment; , ''Banil gamjeong'' in Korean society has its roots in historic, cultural, and nationalistic sentiments. The first recorded anti-Japanese attitudes in Korea were effects of the Japanese pirate raids and the later 15 ...
*
May Fourth Movement The May Fourth Movement was a Chinese anti-imperialist, cultural, and political movement which grew out of student protests in Beijing on May 4, 1919. Students gathered in front of Tiananmen (The Gate of Heavenly Peace) to protest the Chinese ...
in China * Yu Gwan-sun * Refrain club *
National Liberation Day of Korea The National Liberation Day of Korea is a holiday celebrated annually on 15 August in both South and North Korea. It commemorates Victory over Japan Day, when the United States and the Soviet Union liberated Korea from 35 years of Japanese ...


References


Further reading

* * * * Hart, Dennis. "Remembering the nation: construction of the March First movement in North and South Korean history textbooks" ''Review of Korean Studies'' (Seoul) 4, no.1 (June 2001) pp. 35–59, historiography * * Ko, Seung Kyun. ''The March First Movement: A Study of the Rise of Korean Nationalism under the Japanese Colonialism'' ''Koreana Quarterly: A Korean Affairs Review'' (Seoul) 14, no.1-2 (1972) pp. 14–33. * Ku, Dae-yeol. '' Korea Under Colonialism: The March First Movement and Anglo-Japanese Relations'' (Royal Asiatic Society, Seoul, 1985
online review
* Kwon, Tae-eok. "Imperial Japan's 'civilization' rule in the 1910s and Korean sentiments: the causes of the national-scale dissemination of the March First Movement" ''Journal of Northeast Asian History'' 15#1 (Win 2018) pp. 113–142. * Lee, Timothy S. "A political factor in the rise of Protestantism in Korea: Protestantism and the 1919 March First Movement." ''Church History'' 69.1 (2000): 116-142
online
* Palmer, Brandon. "The March First Movement in America: The Campaign to Win American Support." ''Korea Journal'' (2020), 60#4 pp 194–216 * * Wells, Kenneth M. "Background to the March First Movement: Koreans in Japan, 1905-1919." ''Korean Studies'' 13.1 (1989): 5-21
online


External links



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{{Authority control Korean independence movement 20th century in Korea 1919 in Korea Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea 1919 in international relations Protests in Korea Massacres committed by Japan Conflicts in 1919 1919 protests