The Shangqing School (Chinese:上清派), also known as Supreme Clarity or Highest Clarity is a

Taoist Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the ''Tao'' ...

movement that began during the aristocracy of the

Western Jin Western may refer to: Places *Western, Nebraska, a village in the US *Western, New York, a town in the US *Western Creek, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western Junction, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western world, countries that id ...

dynasty. Shangqing can be translated as either 'Supreme Clarity' or 'Highest Clarity.' The first leader of the school was a lady,

Wei Huacun Wei Huacun (252–334), courtesy name Xianan (賢安), was a founder of the Shangqing School of Taoism. Overview Wei was born in 252 in Jining, Shandong in the former county of Rencheng (任城). Her father, Wei Shu (魏舒), was a government ...

(251-334). According to her Shangqing hagiographers, her devotion to Taoist cultivation so impressed a number of immortals that she received revelations from them - 31 volumes of Taoist scriptures, which would become the foundation of Shangqing Taoism. Later,

Tao Hongjing Tao Hongjing (456–536), courtesy name Tongming, was a Chinese alchemist, astronomer, calligrapher, military general, musician, physician, and pharmacologist, and writer during the Northern and Southern dynasties (420–589). A polymathic indiv ...

, a man, (Chinese: 陶弘景) (456－536) structured the theory and practice and compiled the

Taoist Canon Daozang (), meaning 'Taoist Canon', consists of around 1,400 texts that were collected (after the ''Daodejing'' and ''Zhuangzi'' and Liezi which are the core Taoist texts). They were collected by Taoist monks of the period in an attempt to brin ...

. He greatly contributed to the development of the school that took place near the end of the 5th century. The mountain near

Nanjing Nanjing (; , Mandarin pronunciation: ), alternately romanized as Nanking, is the capital of Jiangsu province of the People's Republic of China. It is a sub-provincial city, a megacity, and the second largest city in the East China region. T ...

where Tao Hongjing had his retreat, Maoshan (茅山 – fr), today remains the principal seat of the school. Shangqing practice values

meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique – such as mindfulness, or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity – to train attention and awareness, and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally cal ...

techniques of visualization and breathing, as well as physical exercises, as opposed to the use of

alchemy Alchemy (from Arabic: ''al-kīmiyā''; from Ancient Greek: χυμεία, ''khumeía'') is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in China, India, the Muslim world, ...

and

talismans A talisman is any object ascribed with religious or magical powers intended to protect, heal, or harm individuals for whom they are made. Talismans are often portable objects carried on someone in a variety of ways, but can also be installed perm ...

. The recitation of the sacred canon plays an equally important role. The practice was essentially individualistic, contrary to the collective practices in the Celestial Master school or in the

Lingbao School The Lingbao School (), also known as the School of the Sacred Jewel or the School of Numinous Treasure, was an important Taoist School that emerged in China in between the Jin dynasty and the Liu Song dynasty in the early fifth century CE. It la ...

. Recruiting from high social classes, during the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...

, Shangqing was the dominant school of Taoism, and its influence is found in literature of the time period. The importance of the school only began to diminish beginning from the second half of the

Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...

. Under the

Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fifth ...

, the movement was known by the name Maoshan and the focus changed from meditation to rituals and talismans. In the 21st century, Maoshan Taoism is still practiced but its current techniques are very different from the original techniques developed at the beginning of the school.

History

Lady

, an aristocrat from the Jin dynasty and an ordained Celestial Master

clergy Clergy are formal leaders within established religions. Their roles and functions vary in different religious traditions, but usually involve presiding over specific rituals and teaching their religion's doctrines and practices. Some of the ter ...

, was considered the first patriarch of Shangqing School. Three decades after her death, from 364 to 370, Yang Xi (330-c. 386) supposedly had revelations "aided almost certainly by

cannabis ''Cannabis'' () is a genus of flowering plants in the family Cannabaceae. The number of species within the genus is disputed. Three species may be recognized: ''Cannabis sativa'', '' C. indica'', and '' C. ruderalis''. Alternatively ...

" (

Joseph Needham Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham (; 9 December 1900 – 24 March 1995) was a British biochemist, historian of science and sinologist known for his scientific research and writing on the history of Chinese science and technology, in ...

1980:213) and transcribed texts from a group of immortals and spirits that appeared to him. These texts eventually formed the basis of the school's beliefs. The revelation began to spread in aristocratic circles of South China, and eventually

, advisor to the princes of Qi, joined the group. He commented upon, and compiled the Shangqing texts, and developed a well-structured system consisting of a pantheon and new ways to reach immortality that depended upon meditation. More interested in Taoism and

Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...

than in public administration, in 492 he received authorization to leave the court. He moved to Maoshan, which had by now become the center of the school. There, with the help of the Emperor Wudi of the

Liang dynasty The Liang dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Liang () in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the third of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. It was preceded by the South ...

, he built the temple of Huayang, the first Shangqing temple. After his death, the school continued to prosper, and recruited many people from the aristocracy. From its beginning near Nanjing, the school expanded to the north after laws passed in 504 and 517 forced several masters of the school to go into exile. Ironically this expulsion helped spread the movement to the north, and did little to weaken the schools organization in the south. The Taoist encyclopedia published under the patronage of the Emperor Wu of the

Northern Zhou Zhou (), known in historiography as the Northern Zhou (), was a Xianbei-led dynasty of China that lasted from 557 to 581. One of the Northern dynasties of China's Northern and Southern dynasties period, it succeeded the Western Wei dynasty and ...

(561-578) placed a great deal of importance on the Shangqing texts. The Shangqing School dominated the Taoist movements under the

Tang Dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...

. During this period, all of its leaders received a title from the emperor. Emperor Taizong personally visited three of the temples on Maoshan, and in 731 the Emperor Xuanzong placed Shangqing deities in charge of China's sacred mountains. The Taoist section of the imperial encyclopedia was composed primarily of Shangqing texts. At the same time, the Shangqing school underwent a transformation and integrated texts from the

as well as from the

Way of the Celestial Master The Way of the Celestial Masters is a Chinese Daoist movement that was founded by Zhang Daoling in 142 AD. Its followers rebelled against the Han Dynasty, and won their independence in 194. At its height, the movement controlled a theocratic stat ...

School. The

also became more important and more emphasis was put on public rituals. During the second half of the

Northern Song dynasty Northern may refer to the following: Geography * North, a point in direction * Northern Europe, the northern part or region of Europe * Northern Highland, a region of Wisconsin, United States * Northern Province, Sri Lanka * Northern Range, a ra ...

, the influence of Shangqing Taoism declined at the court, but still remained, changing its focus to rituals and

. New buildings appeared on Maoshan that survived until the destructive

Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC) launched by Mao Zedong in 1966, and lasting until his death in 1976. Its stated goal ...

Mao Zedong Mao Zedong pronounced ; also romanised traditionally as Mao Tse-tung. (26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976), also known as Chairman Mao, was a Chinese communist revolutionary who was the founder of the People's Republic of China (PRC) ...

. Under the Song, some of the Shangqing leaders still benefited from imperial favour such as the 23rd patriarch, Zhu Ziying (974–1029), who received the title of ‘national master’ from the court. The 35th and 44th patriarch, Ren Yuanpu and Wang Daomeng, were equally distinguished for having ended a grasshopper invasion and a flood. Under the Yuan dynasty, the Shangqing school integrated itself under the Zhengyi alliance. At the end of the 20th century, the

Taiping Rebellion The Taiping Rebellion, also known as the Taiping Civil War or the Taiping Revolution, was a massive rebellion and civil war that was waged in China between the Manchu-led Qing dynasty and the Han, Hakka-led Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. It lasted fr ...

, the

Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...

army and the Cultural Revolution have resulted in the complete destruction of the temples on Maoshan. Two of the temples, Jiuxiao Gong and Yuanfu Gong have been rebuilt more for tourists than for religious purposes.

Practices

Shangqing Taoism has borrowed many concepts and beliefs from both the

Celestial Masters The Way of the Celestial Masters is a Chinese Daoist movement that was founded by Zhang Daoling in 142 AD. Its followers rebelled against the Han Dynasty, and won their independence in 194. At its height, the movement controlled a theocratic stat ...

as well as from

Ge Hong Ge Hong (; b. 283 – d. 343 or 364), courtesy name Zhichuan (稚川), was a Chinese linguist, Taoist practitioner, philosopher, physician, politician, and writer during the Eastern Jin dynasty. He was the author of '' Essays on Chinese Characte ...

’s alchemical tradition. However, the absorption of elixirs and other potions aimed to attain

immortality Immortality is the concept of eternal life. Some modern species may possess biological immortality. Some scientists, futurists, and philosophers have theorized about the immortality of the human body, with some suggesting that human immorta ...

was largely replaced in the Song period by

internal alchemy Neidan, or internal alchemy (), is an array of esoteric doctrines and physical, mental, and spiritual practices that Taoist initiates use to prolong life and create an immortal spiritual body that would survive after death. Also known as Jindan ...

that was more linked to meditation techniques (see the ''

Zuowanglun The ''Zuowanglun'' or ''Zuowang lun'' is a Taoist meditative text that was written by the Shangqing School patriarch Sima Chengzhen (647–735). Taoism incorporated many Buddhist practices during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), and the ''Zuowan ...

''). An emphasis was placed on personal meditation in the Shangqing School, unlike the ritualized system of the Celestial Masters. Shangqing meditation was largely a solitary affair, and focused on mental visualization of spirits and gods. There was also no requirement to meditate at a temple; one’s own home was fine.

Deities A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greate ...

lived inside the body and could provide good health if meditated upon. Each deity inhabited a different part of the body. Through studying the descriptions of deities in the canon, adepts would contemplate the inside of their body and maintain the deities in their proper place. This would ensure the body’s durability. While it began as a school centered on the individual, the school changed progressively until talismans and rituals became a more important aspect.

Pantheon

The main deity of Shangqing School is known as the Venerable Sovereign, the first of the

Three Pure Ones The Three Pure Ones (), also translated as the Three Pure Pellucid Ones, the Three Pristine Ones, the Three Divine Teachers, the Three Clarities, or the Three Purities, are the three highest gods in the Taoist pantheon. They are regarded as pure ...

. The pantheon included deities that could be turned to for help, ones that could be revered and others that could be commanded. As described by Tao Hongjing, the pantheon occupied twenty-eight pages in Shangqing texts, but the most important deities are scarcely mentioned. The Canon mostly contains information about the deities that reside within the body.

Canon

The principal text of the Shangqing School is known as The True Text of the Great Dong (Dadong Zhenjing, 大洞真經). Dong can be translated as cave or grotto, but also has other meanings such as ‘to communicate.’ When the texts were dictated to Yang Xi, the

immortals Immortality is the ability to live forever, or eternal life. Immortal or Immortality may also refer to: Film * ''The Immortals'' (1995 film), an American crime film * ''Immortality'', an alternate title for the 1998 British film '' The Wisdom of ...

told him that they were the condensed form of primordial Qi, and existed before the world was born. Eventually the texts congealed and were sent by heaven to be dictated to Yang. Although several sources confirm that the Dadong Zhenjing dates back to the 4th century CE, and earlier fragments exist, the oldest extant complete text, known as the Perfected Scripture of the Great Cavern of Highest Clarity (Shangqing dadong zhenjing 上清大洞真經), was edited by the twenty-third patriarch, Zhu Ziying, and collated in the 13th century by the thirty-eighth patriarch, Jiang Zongying (d. 1281). Later versions introduced “dramatic changes.”Kim (2015), 67. Recitation and veneration of the texts was extremely important. The transmission of texts was strictly controlled, and only a master could give a text to a disciple. The texts could never be revealed to those outside the school.

List of Shangqing patriarchs

1 *

(251–334) 魏華存
2 * Yang Xi (330–86) 楊羲
3 Xu Mi (303–76) 許謐
4 Xu Hui (341–ca. 370) 許翽
5 Ma Lang 馬朗
6 Ma Han 馬罕
7 *

Lu Xiujing Lu Xiujing (; 406–477), known by the courtesy name Yuande (元德) and the posthumous name Jianji (簡寂), was a Taoist compiler and ritualist who lived under the Liu Song dynasty. His education was of Confucianist leaning. Nevertheless, he ch ...

(406–477) 陸修靜
8 *Sun Youyue (399–489) 孫游嶽
9 *

(456–536) 陶弘景
10 *Wang Yuanzhi (528–635) 王遠知
11 *Pan Shizheng (585–682) 潘師正
12 *Sima Chengzhen (647–735) 司馬承禎
13 *Li Hanguang (683–769) 李含光
14 Wei Jingzhao (694–785) 韋景昭
15 Huang Dongyuan (698–792) 黃洞元
16 Sun Zhiqing 孫智清
17 Wu Fatong (825–907) 吳法通
18 Liu Dechang 劉得常
19 Wang Qixia (882–943) 王棲霞
20 Cheng Yanzhao (912–90) 成延昭
21 Jiang Yuanji (?–998) 蔣元吉
22 Wan Baochong 萬保沖
23 *Zhu Ziying (976–1029) 朱自英
24 Mao Fengrou 毛奉柔
25 *Liu Hunkang (1035–1108) 劉混康
26 Da Jingzhi (1068–1113) 笪淨之
27 Xu Xihe (?–1127) 徐希和
28 Jiang Jingche (?–1146) 蔣景徹
29 Li Jinghe (?–1150) 李景合
30 Li Jingying (?–1164) 李景暎
31 Xu Shoujing (?–1195) 徐守經
32 Qin Ruda (?–1195) 秦汝達
33 Xing Rujia (?–1209) 邢汝嘉
34 Xue Ruji (?–1214) 薛汝積
35 Ren Yuanfu (1176–1239) 任元阜
36 Bao Zhizhen (?–1251) 鮑志真
37 Tang Zhidao (?–1258) 湯志道
38 Jiang Zongying (?–1281) 蔣宗瑛
39 Jing Yuanfan 景元範
40 Liu Zongchang 劉宗昶
41 Wang Zhixin (?–1273) 王志心
42 Zhai Zhiying (?–1276) 翟志穎
43 Xu Daoqi (1236–1291) 許道杞
44 Wang Daomeng (1242–1314) 王道孟
45 Liu Dabin (fl. 1317–28) 劉大彬

Notes

{{Reflist

References

* Needham, Joseph, Ho Ping-Yu, and Lu Gwei-djen. ''Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology; Part 4, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention''. Cambridge University Press, 1980. * Robinet, Isabelle, ''Taoist Meditation: The Mao-Shan Tradition of Great Purity'', trans. Julian F. Pas and Norman J. Girardot, State University of New York Press, 1993. * Robinet, Isabelle. ''Daoism: Growth of a Religion''. Stanford: Stanford University, 1997.

External links

Shangqing
(Isabelle Robinet), entry from ''The Encyclopedia of Taoism''

New York Times Magazine Taoist schools