The "Manifesto of the Ninety-Three" (originally "To the Civilized World" by "Professors of Germany") is a 4 October 1914 proclamation by 93 prominent Germans supporting
Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
in the start of
World War I
World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...
. The Manifesto galvanized support for the war throughout German schools and universities, but many foreign
intellectual
An intellectual is a person who engages in critical thinking, research, and reflection about the reality of society, and who proposes solutions for the normative problems of society. Coming from the world of culture, either as a creator or a ...
s were outraged. For instance, some military actions by Germany were called elsewhere the
Rape of Belgium
The Rape of Belgium was a series of systematic war crimes, especially mass murder and deportation and enslavement, by German troops against Belgian civilians during the invasion and occupation of Belgium in World War I.
The neutrality o ...
.
The astronomer
Wilhelm Foerster
Wilhelm Julius Foerster (16 December 1832 – 18 January 1921) was a German astronomer. His name can also be written Förster, but is usually written "Foerster" even in most German sources where 'ö' is otherwise used in the text.
Biography
A ...
soon repented having signed the document. Soon, with the physiologist
Georg Friedrich Nicolai
Georg Friedrich Nicolai (born Lewinstein; 6 February 1874 – 8 October 1964) was a German physiologist.
Biography
He was born in 1874 in Berlin. He studied at the University of Berlin, and later practiced medicine at the Charité in Berlin. He a ...
, drew up the ''
Manifesto to the Europeans
The ″Manifesto to the Europeans″ (German: ''Aufruf an die Europäer'') was a pacifistic proclamation written in response to the Manifesto of the Ninety-Three that included as its authors, German astronomer, Wilhelm Julius Foerster, and German p ...
''. They argued,
Whilst various people expressed sympathy with these sentiments, only the philosopher
Otto Buek
Otto Buek (19 November 1873 – 1966) was a German philosopher and translator born in St. Petersburg.
He studied philosophy, chemistry and mathematics at the University of Heidelberg, and obtained his doctorate from the University of Marburg. ...
and
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein ( ; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist, widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest and most influential physicists of all time. Einstein is best known for developing the theory ...
signed it and it remained unpublished at the time. It was subsequently brought to light by Einstein.
A report in 1921 in ''
The New York Times
''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid ...
'' found that of 76 surviving signatories, 60 expressed varying degrees of regret. Some claimed not to have seen what they had signed.
Purpose and reaction
The manifesto was primarily designed to contradict the negative image of Germany being portrayed in the press by other countries (especially in Britain), which is indicated by the fact that it was published in ten different languages. In addition, the manifesto articulated moral indignation, laid charges against foreign governments, academic institutions, and scholars whom the authors believed had wronged the German nation. They also probably hoped to undermine support for the war among the civilian population of the Entente powers by demonstrating that German scientists — who at the time were very highly reputed — were fully in support of their country, thereby inducing the intellectuals of other European nations to put pressure on the governments of their respective countries. The reaction of both the European and American press and of academic institutions around the world indicate that this attempt was a failure.
Text
Here is an English translation (italics in original):
To the civilized world
/ref>
Signatories
The 93 signatories included Nobel Prize
The Nobel Prizes ( ; sv, Nobelpriset ; no, Nobelprisen ) are five separate prizes that, according to Alfred Nobel's will of 1895, are awarded to "those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind." Alfr ...
laureates, artist
An artist is a person engaged in an activity related to creating art, practicing the arts, or demonstrating an art. The common usage in both everyday speech and academic discourse refers to a practitioner in the visual arts only. However, th ...
s, physician
A physician (American English), medical practitioner (Commonwealth English), medical doctor, or simply doctor, is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through th ...
s, physicist
A physicist is a scientist who specializes in the field of physics, which encompasses the interactions of matter and energy at all length and time scales in the physical universe.
Physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate caus ...
s, chemist
A chemist (from Greek ''chēm(ía)'' alchemy; replacing ''chymist'' from Medieval Latin ''alchemist'') is a scientist trained in the study of chemistry. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties. Chemists carefully describe th ...
s, theologian
Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
s, philosopher
A philosopher is a person who practices or investigates philosophy. The term ''philosopher'' comes from the grc, φιλόσοφος, , translit=philosophos, meaning 'lover of wisdom'. The coining of the term has been attributed to the Greek th ...
s, poet
A poet is a person who studies and creates poetry. Poets may describe themselves as such or be described as such by others. A poet may simply be the creator ( thinker, songwriter, writer, or author) who creates (composes) poems (oral or writte ...
s, architect
An architect is a person who plans, designs and oversees the construction of buildings. To practice architecture means to provide services in connection with the design of buildings and the space within the site surrounding the buildings that h ...
s and known college teachers. The German composer Richard Strauss
Richard Georg Strauss (; 11 June 1864 – 8 September 1949) was a German composer, conductor, pianist, and violinist. Considered a leading composer of the late Romantic and early modern eras, he has been described as a successor of Richard Wag ...
refused to sign, on the basis that "Declarations about war and politics are not fitting for an artist."
List of signatories
#Adolf von Baeyer
Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von Baeyer (; 31 October 1835 – 20 August 1917) was a German chemist who synthesised indigo and developed a nomenclature for cyclic compounds (that was subsequently extended and adopted as part of the IUPAC org ...
, chemist: synthesized indigo, 1905 recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
#Peter Behrens
Peter Behrens (14 April 1868 – 27 February 1940) was a leading German architect, graphic and industrial designer, best known for his early pioneering AEG Turbine Hall in Berlin in 1909. He had a long career, designing objects, typefaces, and i ...
, architect and designer
#Emil Adolf von Behring
Emil von Behring (; Emil Adolf von Behring), born Emil Adolf Behring (15 March 1854 – 31 March 1917), was a German physiologist who received the 1901 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, the first one awarded in that field, for his discovery ...
, physiologist: received the 1901 Nobel Prize in Physiology of Medicine
#Wilhelm von Bode
Wilhelm von Bode (10 December 1845 – 1 March 1929) was a German art historian and museum curator. Born Arnold Wilhelm Bode in Calvörde, he was ennobled in 1913. He was the creator and first curator of the Kaiser Friedrich Museum, now calle ...
, art historian and curator
# Aloïs Brandl, Austrian-German philologist
# Lujo Brentano, economist and social reformer
# Justus Brinckmann, art historian
#Johannes Conrad
Johannes Ernst Conrad (born 28 February 1839 in West Prussia) was a German political economist. Johannes Conrad was a Professor of economics in Halle (Saale), Prussian Germany. He was a co-founder (with Gustav von Schmoller) of the important ''V ...
, political economist
# Franz von Defregger, Austrian artist
#Richard Dehmel
Richard Fedor Leopold Dehmel (18 November 1863 – 8 February 1920) was a German poet and writer.
Life
A forester's son, Richard Dehmel was born in Hermsdorf near Wendisch Buchholz (now a part of Münchehofe) in the Brandenburg Province, Ki ...
, anti-conservative poet and writer
#Adolf Deissmann
Gustav Adolf Deissmann (7 November 1866 – 5 April 1937) was a German Protestant theologian, best known for his leading work on the Greek language used in the New Testament, which he showed was the '' koine'', or commonly used tongue of the H ...
, Protestant theologian
#Wilhelm Dörpfeld
Wilhelm Dörpfeld (26 December 1853 – 25 April 1940) was a German architect and archaeologist, a pioneer of stratigraphic excavation and precise graphical documentation of archaeological projects. He is famous for his work on Bronze Age site ...
, architect and archeologist (including site of ancient Troy)
#Friedrich von Duhn
Friedrich von Duhn (17 April 1851 in Lübeck – 5 February 1930 in Heidelberg) was a German Classical archaeologist who taught at the University of Heidelberg, where he headed the Institut für Klassische Archäologie (1879–1920); his most memo ...
, classical archaeologist
#Paul Ehrlich
Paul Ehrlich (; 14 March 1854 – 20 August 1915) was a Nobel Prize-winning German physician and scientist who worked in the fields of hematology, immunology, and antimicrobial chemotherapy. Among his foremost achievements were finding a cure ...
, awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, initiated chemotherapy, "the magic bullet"
# Albert Ehrhard, Catholic priest and church historian
# Karl Engler, chemist
# Gerhard Esser, Catholic theologian
#Rudolf Christoph Eucken
Rudolf Christoph Eucken (; 5 January 184615 September 1926) was a German philosopher. He received the 1908 Nobel Prize in Literature "in recognition of his earnest search for truth, his penetrating power of thought, his wide range of vision, and ...
, philosopher: winner of the 1908 Nobel Prize for Literature
#Herbert Eulenberg
Max Herbert Eulenberg (1876–1949), was a German poet and author born in Cologne-Mülheim, Germany. He was married from 1904 to Hedda Eulenberg.
Biography
1920s
Eulenberg was the publisher of many books, for which he wrote the introducti ...
, poet and playwright
# Henrich Finke, Catholic church historian
#Hermann Emil Fischer
Hermann Emil Louis Fischer (; 9 October 1852 – 15 July 1919) was a German chemist and 1902 recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He discovered the Fischer esterification. He also developed the Fischer projection, a symbolic way of dra ...
, chemist: 1902 recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
#Wilhelm Foerster
Wilhelm Julius Foerster (16 December 1832 – 18 January 1921) was a German astronomer. His name can also be written Förster, but is usually written "Foerster" even in most German sources where 'ö' is otherwise used in the text.
Biography
A ...
, also signed counter-manifesto
#Ludwig Fulda
Ludwig Anton Salomon Fulda (July 7, 1862 – March 7, 1939) was a German playwright and poet, with a strong social commitment. He lived with Moritz Moszkowski's first wife Henriette, née Chaminade, younger sister of pianist and composer Cécile ...
, Jewish playwright with strong social commitment
# Eduard von Gebhardt, painter
#Jan Jakob Maria de Groot
Jan Jakob Maria de Groot (18 February 185424 September 1921) was a Dutch sinologist and historian of religion. He taught at the Leiden University and later at the University of Berlin, and is chiefly remembered for his monumental work, ''The Religi ...
, Sinologist and historian of religion
# Fritz Haber, chemist: received the 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for synthesizing ammonia
#Ernst Haeckel
Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel (; 16 February 1834 – 9 August 1919) was a German zoologist, naturalist, eugenicist, philosopher, physician, professor, marine biologist and artist. He discovered, described and named thousands of new sp ...
, biologist: coined the words "ecology, phylum, stem cell," developed "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny"
#Max Halbe
Max Halbe (4 October 1865 – 30 November 1944) was a German dramatist and main exponent of Naturalism.
Biography
Halbe was born at the manor of Güttland (Koźliny) near Danzig (Gdańsk), where he grew up. He was a member of an old family of p ...
, dramatist
#Adolf von Harnack
Carl Gustav Adolf von Harnack (born Harnack; 7 May 1851 – 10 June 1930) was a Baltic German Lutheran theologian and prominent Church historian. He produced many religious publications from 1873 to 1912 (in which he is sometimes credited ...
, Lutheran theologian
# Carl Hauptmann, playwright
# Gerhart Hauptmann, dramatist and novelist: received the 1912 Nobel Prize in Literature
#Gustav Hellmann
Gustav Johann Georg Hellmann or Georg Gustav Hellmann (3 July 1854 – 21 February 1939) was a German meteorologist.
Hellmann was born in Löwen (Lewin Brzeski), Prussian Silesia. Since 1907 to 1922, he was the principal of the Preußischen ...
, meteorologist
#Wilhelm Herrmann
Johann Georg Wilhelm Herrmann (6 December 1846 – 2 January 1922) was a Lutheran German theologian.
Career
Hermann taught at Halle before becoming professor at Marburg. Influenced by Kant and Ritschl, his theology was in the idealist tradition ...
, Reformed theologian
# Andreas Heusler, Swiss medievalist
# Adolf von Hildebrand, sculptor
# Ludwig Hoffmann, architect
# Engelbert Humperdinck, composer: including "Hänsel und Gretel"
#Leopold Graf von Kalckreuth
:'
Leopold Karl Walter Graf von Kalkreuth (15 May 1855 – 1 December 1928) was a German painter, known for portraits and landscapes.
Biography
A direct descendant of field-marshal Friedrich Adolf Graf von Kalckreuth, Leopold was born at Düsse ...
, painter
# Arthur Kampf, history painter
# Friedrich August von Kaulbach, painter
#Theodor Kipp
Louis Theodor Kipp (7 March 1862 – 2 April 1931) was a German jurist who is perhaps best known for his theory of "double nullity", under which a null contract can be challenged in some circumstances. He also made important contributions to famil ...
, jurist
# Felix Klein, mathematician: group theory, complex analysis, non-Euclidean geometry; "the Klein bottle"
#Max Klinger
Max Klinger (18 February 1857 – 5 July 1920) was a German artist who produced significant work in painting, sculpture, prints and graphics, as well as writing a treatise articulating his ideas on art and the role of graphic arts and printmak ...
, Symbolist painter, sculptor, printmaker, and writer
# Aloïs Knoepfler, art historian
# Anton Koch, Catholic theologian
#Paul Laband
Paul Laband (24 May 1838 – 23 March 1918) was a German jurist and the German Empire's leading scholar of constitutional law.
Life and work
Labant was born into a Jewish family and converted to Christianity in 1857. He studied law at Breslau, H ...
, professor of law
# Karl Lamprecht, historian
#Philipp Lenard
Philipp Eduard Anton von Lenard (; hu, Lénárd Fülöp Eduárd Antal; 7 June 1862 – 20 May 1947) was a Hungarian-born German physicist and the winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1905 for his work on cathode rays and the discovery of m ...
, physicist: winner of the 1905 Nobel Prize for Physics for cathode rays research
#Maximilian Lenz
Maximilian Lenz (4 October 1860 – 19 May 1948) was an Austrian painter, graphic artist and sculptor. Lenz was a founding member of the Vienna Secession; during his career's most important period, he was a Symbolist, but later his work became in ...
, painter
#Max Liebermann
Max Liebermann (20 July 1847 – 8 February 1935) was a German painter and printmaker, and one of the leading proponents of Impressionism in Germany and continental Europe. In addition to his activity as an artist, he also assembled an important ...
, Jewish Impressionist painter and printmaker
#Franz von Liszt
Franz Eduard Ritter von Liszt (2 March 1851 – 21 June 1919) was a German jurist, criminologist and international law reformer. As a legal scholar, he was a proponent of the modern sociological and historical school of law. From 1898 until 1917, ...
, jurist and legal scholar (cousin of the composer)
#Ludwig Manzel
Karl Ludwig Manzel (3 June 1858, Neu Kosenow – 20 June 1936, Berlin) was a German sculptor, painter and graphic artist.
Life
His father was a tailor and his mother was a midwife. The family moved twice, first to Boldekow then, in 1867, to An ...
, sculptor
# Joseph Mausbach, theologian
# Georg von Mayr, statistician
# Sebastian Merkle, Catholic theologian
# Eduard Meyer, historian
# Heinrich Morf, linguist
# Friedrich Naumann, liberal politician and Protestant pastor
#Albert Neisser
Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser (22 January 1855, Schweidnitz – 30 July 1916, Breslau) was a German physician who discovered the causative agent (pathogen) of gonorrhea, a strain of bacteria that was named in his honour (''Neisseria gonorrhoe ...
, physician who discovered the cause of gonorrhea
#Walther Hermann Nernst
Walther Hermann Nernst (; 25 June 1864 – 18 November 1941) was a German chemist known for his work in thermodynamics, physical chemistry, electrochemistry, and solid state physics. His formulation of the Nernst heat theorem helped pave the ...
, physicist: third law of thermodynamics, won the 1920 Nobel Prize in chemistry
#Wilhelm Ostwald
Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald (; 4 April 1932) was a Baltic German chemist and German philosophy, philosopher. Ostwald is credited with being one of the founders of the field of physical chemistry, with Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, Walther Nernst, ...
, chemist: received the 1909 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
# Bruno Paul, architect, illustrator, interior designer, and furniture designer.
# Max Planck, theoretical physicist: originated quantum theory, awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918
# Albert Plohn, professor of medicine
#Georg Reicke
Georg may refer to:
* ''Georg'' (film), 1997
*Georg (musical), Estonian musical
* Georg (given name)
* Georg (surname)
* , a Kriegsmarine coastal tanker
See also
* George (disambiguation)
George may refer to:
People
* George (given name)
* G ...
, author and politician
#Max Reinhardt
Max Reinhardt (; born Maximilian Goldmann; 9 September 1873 – 30 October 1943) was an Austrian-born Theatre director, theatre and film director, theater manager, intendant, and theatrical producer. With his innovative stage productions, he i ...
, Austrian-born, American stage and film actor and director
#Alois Riehl
Alois Adolf Riehl (; 27 April 1844 – 21 November 1924) was an Austrian neo-Kantian philosopher. He was born in Bozen (Bolzano) in the Austrian Empire (now in Italy). He was the brother of .
Biography
Riehl studied at Vienna, Munich, Innsbruck ...
, philosopher
# Carl Robert, philologist and archeologist
#Wilhelm Röntgen
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (; ; 27 March 184510 February 1923) was a German mechanical engineer and physicist, who, on 8 November 1895, produced and detected electromagnetic radiation in a wavelength range known as X-rays or Röntgen rays, an achiev ...
, physicist: known for X-rays, awarded 1901 Nobel Prize in Physics
#Max Rubner
Max Rubner (2 June 1854, Munich27 April 1932, Berlin) was a German physiologist and hygienist.
Academic career
He studied at the University of Munich and worked as an assistant under Adolf von Baeyer and Carl von Voit (doctorate 1878). Later ...
, physiologist and hygienist
#Fritz Schaper
Fritz (Friedrich) Schaper (31 July 1841, Alsleben – 29 November 1919, Berlin) was a German sculptor.
Life
He was orphaned at an early age, and was sent to Halle to receive instruction at the Francke Foundations. After being apprenticed as a ...
, sculptor
#Adolf von Schlatter
Adolf Schlatter (16 August 1852 – 19 May 1938) was a world-leading Protestant theologian and professor specialising in the New Testament and systematics at Greifswald, Berlin and Tübingen. Schlatter has published more than 400 scholarly and po ...
, Evangelical theologian
# August Schmidlin, theologian
# Gustav von Schmoller, economist
# Reinhold Seeberg, theologian
#Martin Spahn Martin may refer to:
Places
* Martin City (disambiguation)
* Martin County (disambiguation)
* Martin Township (disambiguation)
Antarctica
* Martin Peninsula, Marie Byrd Land
* Port Martin, Adelie Land
* Point Martin, South Orkney Islands
Austral ...
, historian
#Franz von Stuck
Franz von Stuck (February 23, 1863 – August 30, 1928), born Franz Stuck, was a German painter, sculptor, printmaker, and architect. Stuck was best known for his paintings of ancient mythology, receiving substantial critical acclaim with '' The ...
, symbolist/Art Nouveau painter, sculptor, engraver, and architect
#Hermann Sudermann
Hermann Sudermann (30 September 1857 – 21 November 1928) was a German dramatist and novelist.
Life
Early career
Sudermann was born at Matzicken, a village to the east of Heydekrug in the Province of Prussia (now Macikai and Šilutė, i ...
, dramatist and novelist
#Hans Thoma
Hans Thoma (2 October 1839 – 7 November 1924) was a German painter.
Biography
Hans Thoma was born on 2 October 1839 in Bernau in the Black Forest, Germany. He was the son of a miller and was trained in the basics of painting by a painter of ...
, painter
#Wilhelm Trübner
Wilhelm Trübner (February 3, 1851 – December 21, 1917) was a German realist painter of the circle of Wilhelm Leibl.
Biography
Trübner was born in Heidelberg. He was the third son of a silver- and goldsmith, Johann Georg Trübner, and h ...
, realist painter
# Karl Vollmöller, playwright and screenwriter
#Richard Voss
Richard Voss (2 September 1851 – 10 June 1918) was a German dramatist and novelist. In standard German orthography, his name is printed as Voß.
Biography
Voss was born at Neu-Grape near Pyritz, in Pomerania, the son of a country squire.
Th ...
, dramatist and novelist
#Karl Vossler
Karl Vossler (6 September 1872, in Hohenheim – 19 September 1949, in Munich) was a German linguist and scholar, and a leading Romanist. Vossler was known for his interest in Italian thought, and as a follower of Benedetto Croce. He declared his ...
, linguist and scholar
#Siegfried Wagner
Siegfried Helferich Richard Wagner (6 June 18694 August 1930) was a German composer and conductor, the son of Richard Wagner. He was an opera composer and the artistic director of the Bayreuth Festival from 1908 to 1930.
Life
Siegfried Wagner ...
, composer, son of Richard Wagner
#Wilhelm Waldeyer
Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried von Waldeyer-Hartz (6 October 1836 – 23 January 1921) was a German anatomist, known for summarizing neuron theory and for naming the chromosome. He is also remembered by anatomical structures of the human body which ...
, anatomist: named the chromosome
#August von Wassermann
August Paul von Wassermann (21 February 1866 – 16 March 1925) was a German bacteriologist and hygienist.
Born in Bamberg, with Jewish origins, he studied at several universities throughout Germany, receiving his medical doctorate in 1888 from ...
, bacteriologist: developed the "Wassermann test" for syphilis
#Felix Weingartner
Paul Felix Weingartner, Edler von Münzberg (2 June 1863 – 7 May 1942) was an Austrian conductor, composer and pianist.
Life and career
Weingartner was born in Zara, Dalmatia, Austria-Hungary (now Zadar, Croatia), to Austrian parents. T ...
, Austrian conductor, composer and pianist
#Theodor Wiegand
Theodor Wiegand (October 30, 1864 – December 19, 1936) was one of the more famous German archaeologists.
Wiegand was born in Bendorf, Rhenish Prussia. He studied at the universities of Munich, Berlin, and Freiburg. In 1894 he worked under ...
, archeologist
#Wilhelm Wien
Wilhelm Carl Werner Otto Fritz Franz Wien (; 13 January 1864 – 30 August 1928) was a German physicist who, in 1893, used theories about heat and electromagnetism to deduce Wien's displacement law, which calculates the emission of a blackbody ...
, physicist: received the 1911 Nobel Prize for work on heat radiation
#Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff
Enno Friedrich Wichard Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (22 December 1848 – 25 September 1931) was a German classical philologist. Wilamowitz, as he is known in scholarly circles, was a renowned authority on Ancient Greece and its literature ...
, classical philologist
#Richard Willstätter
Richard Martin Willstätter FRS(For) HFRSE (, 13 August 1872 – 3 August 1942) was a German organic chemist whose study of the structure of plant pigments, chlorophyll included, won him the 1915 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Willstätter invented ...
, organic chemist: won the 1915 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for structure of plant pigments
#Wilhelm Windelband
Wilhelm Windelband (; ; 11 May 1848 – 22 October 1915) was a German philosopher of the Baden School.
Biography
Windelband was born the son of a Prussian official in Potsdam. He studied at Jena, Berlin, and Göttingen.
Philosophical work
Wind ...
, philosopher
#Wilhelm Wundt
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (; ; 16 August 1832 – 31 August 1920) was a German physiologist, philosopher, and professor, known today as one of the fathers of modern psychology. Wundt, who distinguished psychology as a science from philosophy and ...
, physician, psychologist, physiologist, philosopher, "father of experimental psychology"
See also
* Septemberprogramm
The ''Septemberprogramm'' (, literally "September Program") was a memorandum authorized by Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg of the German Empire at the beginning of World War I (1914–18). It was drafted on 9 September 1914 by the Chancel ...
References
General references
* Herbert Gantschacher
Herbert Gantschacher (born December 2, 1956, at Waiern in Feldkirchen in Kärnten, Carinthia, Austria) is an Austrian director and producer and writer.
Education
1976 Gantschacher graduated on the second school in Klagenfurt. From 1977 to 198 ...
"Warpropaganda and the manifesto of the Ninety-Three" in Herbert Gantschacher "VIKTOR ULLMANN ZEUGE UND OPFER DER APOKALYPSE - WITNESS AND VICTIM OF THE APOCALYPSE - Testimone e vittima dell'Apocalisse - Prič in žrtev apokalipse - Svědek a oběť apokalypsy" - Complete original authorized edition in German and English language with summaries in Italian, Slovenian and Czech language, ARBOS-Edition , Arnoldstein-Klagenfurt-Salzburg-Vienna-Prora-Prague 2015, page 185.
*
External links
Original manifesto
{{DEFAULTSORT:Manifesto Of The Ninety-Three
Cultural history of World War I
German Empire in World War I
Political manifestos
World War I publications
1914 documents