The mangrove honeyeater (''Gavicalis fasciogularis'') is a species of
bird
Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweigh ...
in the honeyeater family
Meliphagidae
The honeyeaters are a large and diverse family, Meliphagidae, of small to medium-sized birds. The family includes the Australian chats, myzomelas, friarbirds, wattlebirds, miners and melidectes. They are most common in Australia and New Guinea ...
. The species was once considered to be conspecific with the
varied honeyeater, but it is now treated as a separate species. These two species form a genus with the
singing honeyeater
The singing honeyeater (''Gavicalis virescens'') is a small bird found in Australia, and is part of the honeyeater family Meliphagidae. The bird lives in a wide range of shrubland, woodland, and coastal habitat. It is relatively common and is wi ...
.
It is
endemic
Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsew ...
to
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
, where it is restricted to the eastern coast from
Townsville
Townsville is a city on the north-eastern coast of Queensland, Australia. With a population of 180,820 as of June 2018, it is the largest settlement in North Queensland; it is unofficially considered its capital. Estimated resident population, 3 ...
in
Queensland
)
, nickname = Sunshine State
, image_map = Queensland in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of Queensland in Australia
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdivision_name = Australia
, established_title = Before federation
, established_ ...
to northern
New South Wales
)
, nickname =
, image_map = New South Wales in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of New South Wales in AustraliaCoordinates:
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdivision_name = Australia
, established_title = Before federation
, es ...
. The species has been expanding its range southward in recent years. The mangrove honeyeater is generally locally common over most of its range, but is rarer in the south.
There are 177 species of honeyeaters in 40 genera, including the Blue-faced honeyeater (
Entomyzon cyanotis), Bell miner (
Manorina melanophrys), Stitchbird (
Notiomystis cincta), Western spinebill (
Acanthorhynchus superciliosus), and the
Wattlebirds of the genus
Anthochaera
''Anthochaera'' is a genus of birds in the honeyeater family. The species are endemic to Australia and include the little wattlebird, the red wattlebird, the western wattlebird, and the yellow wattlebird. A molecular phylogenetic study has sh ...
.
Physical description
Mangrove Honeyeaters are small to medium-sized nectar eating birds. Its plumage is olive-brown above, grading to greyish-brown on rump and uppertail-coverts, with fine dark streaking on top of head and hindneck. There is olive mottling on uppertail-coverts and broad black mask extending well down side of neck. A narrow yellow moustachial stripe exists that ends in small white tuft. It meets large greyish-white patch on lower side of neck and the tail and upperwing are olive-brown in color. The chin and throat are finely barred dark grey-brown and dull yellow in color. Its legs are colored in dark grey or bluish-grey. The back is dark-grey; only the flight feathers have yellowish-olive leading edges. The irises are dark blue-grey. The slightly down-curved bill is dark-grey. Male weighs between 23.9g to 33.1g and the female weighs between 22g to 30g.
Genus
The mangrove honeyeater was previously placed in the genus ''
Lichenostomus
''Lichenostomus'' is a genus of honeyeaters endemic to Australia.
The genus formerly contained twenty species but it was split after a molecular phylogenetic analysis published in 2011 showed that the genus was polyphyletic. Former members were ...
'', but was moved to ''
Gavicalis'' after a molecular
phylogenetic
In biology, phylogenetics (; from Greek φυλή/ φῦλον [] "tribe, clan, race", and wikt:γενετικός, γενετικός [] "origin, source, birth") is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within groups o ...
analysis, published in 2011, showed that the original genus was
polyphyletic
A polyphyletic group is an assemblage of organisms or other evolving elements that is of mixed evolutionary origin. The term is often applied to groups that share similar features known as homoplasies, which are explained as a result of converg ...
.
Distribution and habitat.
Mangrove honeyeaters are found in Coastal Australia from Northeast Queensland near Townsville as well as in islands from
Whitsunday Islands
The Whitsunday Islands are 74 continental islands of various sizes off the central coast of Queensland, Australia, north of Brisbane. The northernmost of the islands are off the coast by the town of Bowen, while the southernmost islands are ...
,
Moreton Bay
Moreton Bay is a bay located on the eastern coast of Australia from central Brisbane, Queensland. It is one of Queensland's most important coastal resources. The waters of Moreton Bay are a popular destination for recreational anglers and are ...
, and Northeast New South Wales. They are found mainly in Mangrove forests and woodlands fringing coasts, bays,
estuaries
An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and maritime environment ...
and islands. They are less likely to be found in coastal
shrubland
Shrubland, scrubland, scrub, brush, or bush is a plant community characterized by vegetation dominated by shrubs, often also including grasses, herbs, and geophytes. Shrubland may either occur naturally or be the result of human activity. It m ...
,
woodland
A woodland () is, in the broad sense, land covered with trees, or in a narrow sense, synonymous with wood (or in the U.S., the ''plurale tantum'' woods), a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunlight and limited shade (see ...
or scrub (e.g. of ''
Eucalyptus
''Eucalyptus'' () is a genus of over seven hundred species of flowering trees, shrubs or mallees in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. Along with several other genera in the tribe Eucalypteae, including '' Corymbia'', they are commonly known as euca ...
'', ''
Banksia
''Banksia'' is a genus of around 170 species in the plant family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes, and fruiting "cones" and heads. ''Banksias'' range i ...
'', ''
Melaleuca
''Melaleuca'' () is a genus of nearly 300 species of plants in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae, commonly known as paperbarks, honey-myrtles or tea-trees (although the last name is also applied to species of '' Leptospermum''). They range in size ...
'' or combinations of these) near mangroves. The mangrove honeyeaters are a regular visitor to parks and gardens in some towns near mangroves.
In Australia three species are largely restricted to mangroves. It is not uncommon to find ten or more species at a location in forests and coastal
heathlands. Woodlands,
mallee, and other semi-arid scrubs are also rich in species. Within forests and woodlands, most species occupy the canopy, with some of the more
nectarivorous
In zoology, a nectarivore is an animal which derives its energy and nutrient requirements from a diet consisting mainly or exclusively of the sugar-rich nectar produced by flowering plants.
Nectar as a food source presents a number of benefits a ...
species feeding more in the shrub layer.
Reproduction
Mangrove honeyeaters are monogamous, although polygamy or a mixed mating system is present in species with great sexual dimorphism. Honeyeaters lay 1-5 eggs (average 2). The eggs are white, pinkish colored, or buff with reddish-brown spots. Their incubation period is 12-17 days, while their nesting period lasts for 10-30 days.
Diet and foraging
Mangrove honeyeaters usually feed on nectar and invertebrates, and sometimes fruit. The invertebrates they eat include insects, marine snails, and crab. Honeyeaters forage mainly in mangroves (''
Aegiceras
''Aegiceras '' is a genus of trees and shrubs from Southeast Asia, Malesia, Australia and the Pacific Island,. and in Australia, in the Northern Territory, Queensland, New South Wales, and Western Australia. They occur as mangroves in coastal ...
,
Rhizophora
''Rhizophora'' is a genus of tropical mangrove trees, sometimes collectively called true mangroves. The most notable species is the red mangrove (''Rhizophora mangle'') but some other species and a few natural hybrids are known. ''Rhizophora'' sp ...
''), among outer foliage, in flowers, trees, and shrubs. Other sweet food sources include honeydew from bugs (
Hemiptera
Hemiptera (; ) is an order (biology), order of insects, commonly called true bugs, comprising over 80,000 species within groups such as the cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, Reduviidae, assassin bugs, Cimex, bed bugs, and shield bugs. ...
), manna (sugary exudate from damaged foliage), and
lerp (the sugary coating on scale insects of the family
Psyllidae
Psyllidae, the jumping plant lice or psyllids, are a family of small plant-feeding insects that tend to be very host-specific, i.e. each plant-louse species only feeds on one plant species (monophagous) or feeds on a few closely related plants ( ...
). Honeyeaters also consume
sap
Sap is a fluid transported in xylem cells (vessel elements or tracheids) or phloem sieve tube elements of a plant. These cells transport water and nutrients throughout the plant.
Sap is distinct from latex, resin, or cell sap; it is a separa ...
exuding from scars on branches caused by gliding
possums
Possum may refer to:
Animals
* Phalangeriformes, or possums, any of a number of arboreal marsupial species native to Australia, New Guinea, and Sulawesi
** Common brushtail possum (''Trichosurus vulpecula''), a common possum in Australian urban a ...
.
Behavior
Sounds
The song is loud, melodious and ringing, but varying, e.g. “whit-u-we-u”. It is classified as scolding chatter. Small honeyeaters are often musical, while larger ones make a larger raucous sound.
Breeding
The breeding period is between August-December. The peak month is September. In northern regions, the breeding period lasts between April-May. Their nests are cup-shaped and are made of dried grasses and
seagrass
Seagrasses are the only flowering plants which grow in marine environments. There are about 60 species of fully marine seagrasses which belong to four families (Posidoniaceae, Zosteraceae, Hydrocharitaceae and Cymodoceaceae), all in the orde ...
or plant fibre, which are bound with spider web and matted egg sacs. They are lined with fine rootlets or fine grass. For two nests, the external diameter is 8·9–9·5 cm, the depth is 5·7–7·6 cm, and the internal diameter is 6·4–7·6 cm. Nests are suspended by rim, and occasionally supported, they are 0·5–2·7 m above ground. They are small in size, and are found in dense mangroves. Both adults feed nestlings and fledglings. Nests are parasitized by Pallid (''
Heteroscenes pallidus'') and Fan-tailed Cuckoos (
''Cacomantis flabelliformis'').
Movement
They are a local resident of
Moreton Bay
Moreton Bay is a bay located on the eastern coast of Australia from central Brisbane, Queensland. It is one of Queensland's most important coastal resources. The waters of Moreton Bay are a popular destination for recreational anglers and are ...
, in SE Queensland. The numbers increase in May–Jun and decline during Jul–Dec. This movement is a possible result of local seasonal changes.
Flight
The mangrove honeyeaters have benefited from land-clearing and fragmentation in southern Western Australia and are able to fly over open agricultural lands. They have been implicated in the spread of the noxious weed
Bridal Creeper
''Asparagus asparagoides'', commonly known as bridal creeper, bridal-veil creeper, ''gnarboola'', smilax or smilax asparagus, is a herbaceous climbing plant of the family Asparagaceae native to eastern and southern Africa. Sometimes grown as an ...
,
''Asparagus medeoloides''.
Conservation status
The mangrove honeyeater is not globally threatened. They have restricted range and the population size is not quantified, but is not considered vulnerable due to the size of its range. The range is thought to have expanded over the last 50 years, with first records if the bird at
Yamba in 1947, and some following records farther south.
References
mangrove honeyeater
Birds of Queensland
Endemic birds of Australia
mangrove honeyeater
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot
{{Meliphagidae-stub