The Tungusic languages (also known as Manchu-Tungus and Tungus) form a language family spoken in Eastern Siberia and Manchuria by Tungusic peoples. Many Tungusic languages are endangered. There are approximately 75,000 native speakers of the dozen living languages of the Tungusic language family. Some linguists consider Tungusic to be part of the controversial

Altaic language family Altaic (; also called Transeurasian) is a controversial proposed language family that would include the Turkic languages, Turkic, Mongolic languages, Mongolic and Tungusic languages, Tungusic language families and possibly also the Japonic la ...

, along with

Turkic Turkic may refer to: * anything related to the country of Turkey * Turkic languages, a language family of at least thirty-five documented languages ** Turkic alphabets (disambiguation) ** Turkish language, the most widely spoken Turkic language * ...

, Mongolic, and sometimes

Koreanic Koreanic is a small language family consisting of the Korean language, Korean and Jeju language, Jeju languages. The latter is often described as a dialect of Korean, but is distinct enough to be considered a separate language. Alexander Vovin s ...

and

Japonic Japonic or Japanese–Ryukyuan, sometimes also Japanic, is a language family comprising Japanese, spoken in the main islands of Japan, and the Ryukyuan languages, spoken in the Ryukyu Islands. The family is universally accepted by linguists, and ...

. The term "Tungusic" is from an exonym for the

Evenk people The Evenks (also spelled Ewenki or Evenki based on their endonym )Autonym: (); russian: Эвенки (); (); formerly known as Tungus or Tunguz; mn, Хамниган () or Aiwenji () are a Tungusic people of North Asia. In Russia, the Even ...

(Ewenki) used by the Yakuts ("tongus"). It was borrowed into Russian as "тунгус", and ultimately transliterated into English as "Tungus".

Classification

Linguists working on Tungusic have proposed a number of different classifications based on different criteria, including morphological, lexical, and phonological characteristics. Some scholars have criticized the tree-based model of Tungusic classification, arguing the long history of contact among the Tungusic languages makes them better treated as a dialect continuum. Distribution_of_the_Tungusic_languages

The main classification is into a northern branch and a southern branch (Georg 2004), although the two branches have no clear division and the classification of intermediate groups is debatable. Four mid-level subgroups are recognized by Hölzl (2018), namely Ewenic, Udegheic, Nanaic, and Jurchenic. Alexander Vovin notes that

Manchu The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name. The Later Jin (1616–1636) and ...

and Jurchen are aberrant languages within South Tungusic but nevertheless still belong in it, and that this aberrancy is perhaps due to influences from the Para-Mongolic

Khitan language Khitan or Kitan ( in large script or in small, ''Khitai''; , ''Qìdānyǔ''), also known as Liao, is a now-extinct language once spoken in Northeast Asia by the Khitan people (4th to 13th century). It was the official language of the Liao Empir ...

, from

Old Korean Old Korean () is the first historically documented stage of the Korean language, typified by the language of the Unified Silla period (668–935). The boundaries of Old Korean periodization remain in dispute. Some linguists classify the sparsely ...

, and perhaps also from

Chukotko-Kamchatkan The Chukotko-Kamchatkan or Chukchi–Kamchatkan languages are a language family of extreme northeastern Siberia. Its speakers traditionally were indigenous hunter-gatherers and reindeer-herders. Chukotko-Kamchatkan is endangered. The Kamchatkan ...

and unknown languages of uncertain linguistic affiliation. ;Southern Tungusic (Jurchenic-Nanaic) * (Southwestern Tungusic) ("Manchu group") ** Jurchen (extinct, developed into Manchu in the 17th century) ***

: speakers originated from the Sungari Ula River area (they founded the Jin and

Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speaki ...

dynasties of

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...

) *** Xibe: spoken in Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County, Sinkiang/ Xinjiang. (Developed separately since 1764 from a

military garrison) **

Chinese Kyakala Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **'' Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of v ...

(恰喀拉Mu, Yejun 穆晔骏. 1987: Balayu 巴拉语. Manyu yanjiu 满语研究 2. 2‒31, 128.) **

Bala Bala may refer to: Places India *Bala, India, a village in Allahabad, India * Bala, Ahor, a village in the Jalore district of Rajasthan * Bala, Raebareli, a village in Uttar Pradesh, India Romania * Bala, Mehedinți, a commune in Mehedinţi ...

(巴拉) ** (阿勒楚喀) * Nanaic (Southeastern Tungusic) ("Nanai group" / "Amur group") ** Nanai (Gold, Goldi, Hezhen) (Akani, Birar, Samagir) *** ''Upper Amur'' **** ''Right-bank Amur'' **** ''Sungari'' **** ''Bikin'' ''(Ussuri)'' *** ''Central Amur'' **** ''Sakachi-Alyan'' **** ''Naykhin'' ''(basis of standard Nanai but not identical)'' **** ''Dzhuen'' *** ''Lower Amur'' **** ''Bolon'' **** ''Ekon'' **** ''Gorin'' ** Orok ( Uilta) *** ''Northern (East Sakhalin)'' *** ''Southern (South Sakhalin, Poronaysky)'' ** Ulch / Olcha ;Transitional Southern-Northern Tungus (Udegheic) * Udegheic (Oroch–Udege; strongly influenced by Southern Tungusic) ** Oroch †? ***''Tumninsky dialect'' †''?'' ***''Khadinsky dialect'' †''?'' ***''Hungarisky dialect'' †''?'' ** Udege / Udihe ;Northern Tungusic () * Ewenic **

Even Even may refer to: General * Even (given name), a Norwegian male personal name * Even (surname) * Even (people), an ethnic group from Siberia and Russian Far East ** Even language, a language spoken by the Evens * Odd and Even, a solitaire game w ...

( Lamut) (in eastern Siberia) *** ''Arman'' *** ''Indigirka'' *** ''Kamchatka'' *** ''Kolyma-Omolon'' *** ''Okhotsk'' *** ''Ola'' *** ''Tompon'' *** ''Upper Kolyma'' *** ''Sakkyryr'' *** ''Lamunkhin'' ** Evenki *** Evenki (obsolete: Tungus), spoken by Evenks in central Siberia and Manchuria **** '' Solon'' ''(Solon Ewenki)'' ***** ''Hihue/Hoy'' ''(basis of the standard, but not identical)'' ***** ''Haila’er'' ***** ''Aoluguya'' ''(Olguya)'' ***** ''Chenba’erhu'' ''(Old Bargu)'' ***** ''Morigele'' ''(Mergel)'' **** ''Siberian Ewenki'' / ''Ewenki of Siberia'' ***** ''Northern (spirant)'' ****** ''Ilimpeya'' (''subdialects'': ''Ilimpeya'', ''Agata and Bol'shoi'', ''Porog'', ''Tura'', ''Tutonchany'', ''Dudinka/Khantai'') ****** ''Yerbogachen'' (''subdialects:'' ''Yerbogachen'', ''Nakanno'') ***** ''Southern'' ''(sibilant)'' ****** ''Hushing'' ******* ''Sym'' (''subdialects:'' ''Tokma/Upper Nepa'', ''Upper Lena/Kachug'', ''Angara'') ******* ''Northern Baikal'' (''subdialects:'' ''Northern Baikal'', ''Upper Lena'') ****** ''Hissing'' ******* ''Stony Tunguska'' (''subdialects:'' ''Vanavara'', ''Kuyumba'', ''Poligus'', ''Surinda'', ''Taimura/Chirinda'', ''Uchami'', ''Chemdal'sk'') ******* ''Nepa'' (''subdialects:'' ''Nepa'', ''Kirensk'') ******* ''Vitim-Nercha/Baunt-Talocha'' (''subdialects:'' '' Baunt'', ''Talocha'', ''Tungukochan'', ''Nercha'') ***** ''Eastern'' ''(sibilant-spirant)'' ****** ''Vitim-Olyokma'' (''subdialects:'' ''Barguzin'', ''Vitim/ Kalar'', '' Olyokma'', ''

Tungir The Tungir (russian: Тунгир) is a river in Transbaikalia, East Siberia, Russian Federation. It is the third largest tributary of the Olyokma in terms of length and area of its basin. The river is long and has a drainage basin of . The Tung ...

'', '' Tokko'') ****** ''Upper Aldan'' (''subdialects:'' ''Aldan'', ''Upper Amur'', ''Amga'', ''Dzheltulak'', ''

Timpton , image = Поездка в Нерюнгринский район, 2017 (365).jpg , image_caption = View of a bend in the river , source1_location = Stanovoy Range , source1_coordinates = , source1_elevation = ...

'', ''Tommot'', ''Khingan'', ''Chul'man'', ''Chul'man-Gilyui'') ****** ''Uchur-Zeya'' (''subdialects:'' ''Uchur'', ''Zeya'') ****** ''Selemdzha-Bureya-Urmi'' (''subdialects:'' ''Selemdzha'', ''Bureya'', ''Urmi'') ****** ''Ayan-Mai'' (''subdialects:'' ''Ayan'', ''Aim'', ''Mai'', ''Nel'kan'', ''Totti'') ****** ''Tugur-Chumikan'' (''subdialects:'' ''Tugur'', ''Chumikan'') ****** ''Sakhalin'' ''(no subdialects)'' ***

Negidal Negidals (; Negidal: ''элькан бэйэнин'', ''elkan bayenin'', "local people") are a people in the Khabarovsk Krai in Russia, who live along the Amgun River and Amur River. The ethnonym "Negidal" is a Russification of the Ewenki ...

**** ''Lower Negidal'' † **** ''Upper Negidal'' *** Oroqen **** ''Gankui'' ''(basis of standard Oroqen but not identical)'' **** ''Selpechen'' **** ''Kumarchen'' **** ''Selpechen'' **** ''Orochen'' *** Kili (previously thought to be a dialect of Nanai)

Zimin (2020)

Zimin (2020) proposes a ''Tungus–Manchu'' family with two primary branches, namely the Jurchenic and Tungusic (proper) branches. ;Tungus–Manchu *Jurchenic **Xi Yeren Jurchen ***Bala ***Alchuka **Jurchen proper ***Haixi Jurchen ****spoken Sibo ****Guanwai *****Ilanbou *****Tailai *****Aigun *****Niŋgutan, Girinese ***Jianzhou Jurchen ****Hebei, Mukdenese Manchu ****written Manchu; Sibo *Tungusic (proper) **Nanic ***Uilta ***Nanai ****Nani ****Lower Amur Nanai ****Ussuri–Bikin Nanai ****Middle Amur Nanai **Oroch–Ewonic ***Ewonic ****Southern ****Northern ****Eastern ***Oroch–Udyhe ****Oroch ****Kur–Urmi Udyhe ****Siȟotə–Aliň Udyhe

History

Proto-Tungusic

Some linguists estimate the divergence of the Tungusic languages from a common ancestor spoken somewhere in Eastern Manchuria around 500 BC to 500 AD. (Janhunen 2012, Pevnov 2012) Other theories favor a homeland closer to

Lake Baikal Lake Baikal (, russian: Oзеро Байкал, Ozero Baykal ); mn, Байгал нуур, Baigal nuur) is a rift lake in Russia. It is situated in southern Siberia, between the federal subjects of Irkutsk Oblast to the northwest and the Repu ...

. ( Menges 1968, Khelimskii 1985) While the general form of the protolanguage is clear from the similarities in the daughter languages, there is no consensus on detailed reconstructions. As of 2012, scholars are still trying to establish a shared vocabulary to do such a reconstruction. The Lake Khanka region was found to present the most likely homeland, based on linguistic and ancient genetic data. There are some proposed sound correspondences for Tungusic languages. For example, Norman (1977) supports a Proto-Tungusic ''*t'' > Manchu ''s'' when followed by ''*j'' in the same stem, with any exceptions arising from loanwords. Some linguists believe there are connections between the

vowel harmony In phonology, vowel harmony is an Assimilation (linguistics), assimilatory process in which the vowels of a given domain – typically a phonological word – have to be members of the same natural class (thus "in harmony"). Vowel harmony is t ...

of Proto-Tungusic and some of the neighboring non-Tungusic languages. For example, there are proposals for an areal or genetic correspondence between the vowel harmonies of Proto-Korean,

Proto-Mongolian The proto-Mongols emerged from an area that had been inhabited by humans and predecessor hominin species as far back as 45,000 years ago during the Upper Paleolithic. The people there went through the Bronze and Iron Ages, forming tribal allianc ...

, and Proto-Tungusic based on an original RTR harmony. This is one of several competing proposals, and on the other hand, some reconstruct Proto-Tungusic without RTR harmony. Some sources describe the Donghu people of 7th century BC to 2nd century BC Manchuria as Proto-Tungusic. Other sources sharply criticize this as a random similarity in pronunciation with "Tungus" that has no real basis in fact. The historical records of the Korean kingdoms of Baekje and Silla note battles with the Mohe ( zh, 靺鞨) in Manchuria during the 1st and 2nd centuries. Some scholars suggest these Mohe are closely connected to the later Jurchens, but this is controversial. Alexander Vovin (2015) notes that Northern Tungusic languages have Eskimo–Aleut loanwords that are not found in Southern Tungusic, implying that Eskimo–Aleut was once much more widely spoken in eastern Siberia. Vovin (2015) estimates that the Eskimo–Aleut loanwords in Northern Tungusic had been borrowed no more than 2,000 years ago, which was when Tungusic was spreading northwards from its homeland in the middle reaches of the

Amur River The Amur (russian: река́ Аму́р, ), or Heilong Jiang (, "Black Dragon River", ), is the world's List of longest rivers, tenth longest river, forming the border between the Russian Far East and Northeast China, Northeastern China (Inne ...

. Wang and Robbeets (2020) place the Proto-Tungusic homeland in the Lake Khanka region. Liu et al. (2020) revealed that Haplogroup C-F5484 and its subclades are the genetic markers of Tungusic-speaking peoples. C-F5484 was emerged 3,300 years ago and begun to diverge 1,900 years ago, indicating the approximate age of differentiation of Tungusic languages.

Jurchen-Manchu language

The earliest written attestation of the language family is in the

Jurchen language Jurchen language ( zh, t=女真語, p=Nǚzhēn yǔ) was the Tungusic language of the Jurchen people of eastern Manchuria, the rulers of the Jin dynasty in northern China of the 12th and 13th centuries. It is ancestral to the Manchu language. In ...

, which was spoken by the rulers of the

Jin dynasty (1115–1234) The Jin dynasty (, ; ) or Jin State (; Jurchen: Anchun Gurun), officially known as the Great Jin (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 1115 and 1234. Its name is sometimes written as Kin, Jurchen Jin, Jinn, or Chin in ...

. The Jurchens invented a Jurchen script to write their language based on the

Khitan scripts Khitan scripts may refer to one of two mutually exclusive Writing system, scripts used by the Khitan people during the 10th-12th centuries: *Khitan small script, invented in about 924 or 925 CE by a scholar named Diela *Khitan large script, introdu ...

. During this time, several stelae were put up in Manchuria and Korea. One of these, among the most important extant texts in Jurchen, is the inscription on the back of "the Jin Victory Memorial Stele" (''Da Jin deshengtuo songbei''), which was erected in 1185, during the Dading period (1161–1189). It is apparently an abbreviated translation of the Chinese text on the front of the stele. The last known example of the Jurchen script was written in 1526. The Tungusic languages appear in the historical record again after the unification of the Jurchen tribes under Nurhaci, who ruled 1616-1626. He commissioned a new Manchu alphabet based on the Mongolian alphabet, and his successors went on to found the Qing dynasty. In 1636, Emperor

Hong Taiji Hong Taiji (28 November 1592 – 21 September 1643), also rendered as Huang Taiji and sometimes referred to as Abahai in Western literature, also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizong of Qing, was the second khan of the Later Jin ...

decreed that the ethnonym "Manchu" would replace "Jurchen". Modern scholarship usually treats Jurchen and Manchu as different stages of the same language. Currently, Manchu proper is a

dying language In linguistics, language death occurs when a language loses its last native speaker. By extension, language extinction is when the language is no longer known, including by second-language speakers. Other similar terms include linguicide, the deat ...

spoken by a dozen or so elderly people in Qiqihar, China. However, the closely related Xibe language spoken in Xinjiang, which historically was treated as a divergent dialect of Jurchen-Manchu, maintains the literary tradition of the script, and has around 30,000 speakers. As the only language in the Tungusic family with a long written tradition, Jurchen-Manchu is a very important language for the reconstruction of Proto-Tungusic.

Other Tungusic languages

Other Tungusic languages have relatively short or no written traditions. Since around the 20th century, some of these other languages can be written in a Russian-based Cyrillic script, but the languages remain primarily spoken languages only.

Tungusic research

The earliest Western accounts of Tungusic languages came from the Dutch traveler Nicolaes Witsen, who published in the Dutch language a book titled ''Noord en Oost Tartarye'' (literally 'North and East Tartary'), which described a variety of peoples in the Russian Far East and included some brief word lists for many languages. Following his travel to Russia, his collected findings were published in three editions, 1692, 1705, and 1785. The book includes some words and sentences from the

Evenki language Evenki (Ewenkī), formerly known as Tungus or Solon, is the largest member of the northern group of Tungusic languages, a group which also includes Even, Negidal, and the more closely related Oroqen language. The name is sometimes wrongly given ...

, then called "Tungus". The German linguist

Wilhelm Grube Wilhelm Grube () (17 August 1855 – 2 July 1908) was a German sinologist and ethnographer. He is particularly known for his work on Tungusic languages and the Jurchen language. Biography Grube was born in Saint Petersburg, Russia in 1855. He ...

(1855–1908) published an early dictionary of the Nanai language (Gold language) in 1900, as well as deciphering the

for modern audiences using a Chinese source.

Common characteristics

The Tungusic languages are of an agglutinative morphological type, and some of them have complex

case Case or CASE may refer to: Containers * Case (goods), a package of related merchandise * Cartridge case or casing, a firearm cartridge component * Bookcase, a piece of furniture used to store books * Briefcase or attaché case, a narrow box to c ...

systems and elaborate patterns of tense and aspect marking. The normal word order for all of the languages is

subject–object–verb Subject ( la, subiectus "lying beneath") may refer to: Philosophy *'' Hypokeimenon'', or ''subiectum'', in metaphysics, the "internal", non-objective being of a thing **Subject (philosophy), a being that has subjective experiences, subjective con ...

Phonology

Tungusic languages exhibit a complex pattern of

, based on two parameters: vowel

roundedness In phonetics, vowel roundedness is the amount of rounding in the lips during the articulation of a vowel. It is labialization of a vowel. When a ''rounded'' vowel is pronounced, the lips form a circular opening, and ''unrounded'' vowels are pron ...

and vowel tenseness (in Evenki, the contrast is back and front, rather). Tense and lax vowels do not occur in the same word; all vowels in a word, including suffixes, are either one or the other. Rounded vowels in the root of a word cause all the following vowels in the word to become rounded, but not those before the rounded vowel. Those rules are not absolute, and there are many individual exceptions. Vowel length is phonemic, with many words distinguished based on the distinction between short vowel and long vowel. Tungusic words have simple word codas, and usually have simple word onsets, with consonant clusters forbidden at the end of words and rare at the beginning. Below are Proto-Tungusic consonants as reconstructed by Tsintsius (1949) and the vowels according to Benzing (1955): : :

Lexicon

Below are the reconstructed Proto-Tungusic forms for the lexical items in the

Leipzig–Jakarta list The Leipzig–Jakarta list of 100 words is used by linguistics, linguists to test the degree of chronological separation of languages by comparing words that are resistant to loan word, borrowing. The Leipzig–Jakarta list became available in 2 ...

, extracted from the ''

Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages The ''Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages'' is a comparative and etymological dictionary of the hypothetical Altaic language family. It was written by linguists Sergei Starostin, Anna Dybo, and , and was published in Leiden in 2003 b ...

'' (2003).

Relationships with other languages

Tungusic is today considered a primary language family. Especially in the past, some linguists have linked Tungusic with

and

Mongolic languages The Mongolic languages are a language family spoken by the Mongolic peoples in Eastern Europe, Central Asia, North Asia and East Asia, mostly in Mongolia and surrounding areas and in Kalmykia and Buryatia. The best-known member of this language ...

in the

. However, a genetic, as opposed to an areal, link remains unproven. Others have suggested that the Tungusic languages may be related (perhaps as a

paraphyletic In taxonomy (general), taxonomy, a group is paraphyletic if it consists of the group's most recent common ancestor, last common ancestor and most of its descendants, excluding a few Monophyly, monophyletic subgroups. The group is said to be pa ...

outgroup) to the

, or

Ainu Ainu or Aynu may refer to: *Ainu people, an East Asian ethnic group of Japan and the Russian Far East *Ainu languages, a family of languages **Ainu language of Hokkaido **Kuril Ainu language, extinct language of the Kuril Islands **Sakhalin Ainu la ...

languages as well (see Macro-Tungusic). In 2017, a link to Turkic and Mongolic languages was again proposed by Martine Robbeets in her "

Transeurasian Altaic (; also called Transeurasian) is a controversial proposed language family that would include the Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic language families and possibly also the Japonic and Koreanic languages. Speakers of these languages are c ...

family" (another name for Macro-Altaic). According to Robbeets, Tungusic is closest to Mongolic languages. The evidence for this proposal has been criticized by Tian. et al. Despite some similarities between the Tungusic and Koreanic languages, Alexander Vovin (2013) considers Tungusic and Koreanic to be separate, unrelated language groups that share areal rather than genetic commonalities through mutual influence of Goguryeo and Jurchen on each other. The language of the Avars in Europe which created the

Avar Khaganate The Pannonian Avars () were an alliance of several groups of Eurasian nomads of various origins. The peoples were also known as the Obri in chronicles of Rus, the Abaroi or Varchonitai ( el, Βαρχονίτες, Varchonítes), or Pseudo-Avars ...

is believed by some scholars to be of Tungusic origin.Helimski, E (2004). "Die Sprache(n) der Awaren: Die mandschu-tungusische Alternative". Proceedings of the First International Conference on Manchu-Tungus Studies, Vol. II: 59–72.

References

Citations

Sources

* Kane, Daniel. ''The Sino-Jurchen Vocabulary of the Bureau of Interpreters''. Indiana University Uralic and Altaic Series, Volume 153. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, 1989. . * Miller, Roy Andrew. ''Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages''. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1971. * Poppe, Nicholas. ''Vergleichende Grammatik der Altaischen Sprachen'' Comparative Grammar of the Altaic Languages Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1960. * Tsintsius, Vera I. ''Sravnitel'naya Fonetika Tunguso-Man'chzhurskikh Yazïkov'' omparative Phonetics of the Manchu-Tungus Languages Leningrad, 1949. * Stefan Georg. "Unreclassifying Tungusic", in: Carsten Naeher (ed.): ''Proceedings of the First International Conference on Manchu-Tungus Studies (Bonn, August 28 – September 1, 2000), Volume 2: Trends in Tungusic and Siberian Linguistics'', Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 45–57. * Hölzl, Andreas & Payne, Thomas E. (eds.). 2022. Tungusic languages: Past and present. (Studies in Diversity Linguistics 32). Berlin: Language Science Press. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.7025328 https://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/355 Open Access.

*Aixinjueluo Yingsheng. 2014. Manyu kouyu yindian . Peking: Huayi chubanshe. *. *Alonso de la Fuente, José Andrés. 2015
Tungusic historical linguistics and the Buyla (a.k.a. Nagyszentmiklós) inscription
Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia 20. 17-46. *Alonso de la Fuente, José Andrés. 2017a
An Oroch word-list lost and rediscovered: A critical edition of Tronson's 1859 pseudo- Nivkh vocabulary
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Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia ''Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia'' (russian: Археология, Этнография и Антропология Евразии) is a bilingual peer-reviewed academic journal covering anthropological and archaeological studi ...

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��Altaic Linguistics. Grammars, Texts, Dictionaries, Bibliographies of Mongolian and other Altaic languages

at Dartmouth College
Tungusic languages

Vergleich der Reziproken des Ewenischen mit verwandten Sprachen
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