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A ''manbo'' (also written as ''mambo'') is a priestess (as opposed to a '' oungan'', a male
priest A priest is a religious leader authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in partic ...
) in the Haitian Vodou religion. Haitian Vodou's conceptions of priesthood stem from the religious traditions of enslaved people from Dahomey, in what is today
Benin Benin ( , ; french: Bénin , ff, Benen), officially the Republic of Benin (french: République du Bénin), and formerly Dahomey, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east, Burkina Faso to the nort ...
. For instance, the term ''manbo'' derives from the Fon word ''nanbo'' ("mother of magic"). Like their
West Africa West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, M ...
n counterparts, Haitian ''manbos'' are female leaders in Vodou temples who perform
healing With physical trauma or disease suffered by an organism, healing involves the repairing of damaged tissue(s), organs and the biological system as a whole and resumption of (normal) functioning. Medicine includes the process by which the cells ...
work and guide others during complex
ritual A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or objects, performed according to a set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized ...
s. This form of female leadership is prevalent in urban centers such as Port-au-Prince (the capital of Haiti). Typically, there is no hierarchy among ''manbos'' and ''oungans''. These priestesses and priests serve as the heads of autonomous religious groups and exert their authority over the devotees or spiritual servants in their ''hounfo'' (temples). ''Manbos'' and ''oungans'' are called into power via
spirit possession Spirit possession is an unusual or altered state of consciousness and associated behaviors purportedly caused by the control of a human body by spirits, ghosts, demons, or gods. The concept of spirit possession exists in many cultures and re ...
or the revelations in a
dream A dream is a succession of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that usually occur involuntarily in the mind during certain stages of sleep. Humans spend about two hours dreaming per night, and each dream lasts around 5 to 20 minutes, althou ...
. They become qualified after completing several initiation rituals and technical training exercises where they learn the Vodou spirits by their names, attributes, and symbols. The first step in initiation is ''lave tèt'' (head washing), which is aimed at the spirits housed in an individual's head. The second step is known as ' (to lie down), which is when the initiate enters a period of seclusion. Typically, the final step is the possession of the ''ason'' (sacred rattle), which enables the ''manbos'' or ''oungans'' to begin their work. One of the main goals of Vodou initiation ceremonies is to strengthen the ''manbo''s ''konesans (''knowledge''),'' which determines priestly power. The specific skills and knowledge gained by ''manbos'' enable them to mediate between the physical and spiritual realms. They use this information to call upon the spirits through song, dance, prayer, offerings, and/or the drawing of ''
vèvè A ''veve'' (also spelled ''vèvè'' or ''vevè'') is a religious symbol commonly used in different branches of Vodun throughout the African diaspora, such as Haitian Vodou and Louisiana Voodoo. The ''veve'' acts as a "beacon" for the '' loa'', ...
s'' (spiritual symbols). During these rituals, ''manbos'' may either be possessed by a ''
loa ( ), also called loa or loi, are spirits in the African diasporic religion of Haitian Vodou. They have also been incorporated into some revivalist forms of Louisiana Voodoo. Many of the lwa derive their identities in part from deities venerat ...
'' (also spelled ''lwa'', Vodou spirits) themselves, or may oversee the possession of other devotees. Spirit possession plays an important role in Vodou because it establishes a connection between human beings and the Vodou deities or spirits. Although ''loas'' can "mount" whomever they choose, those outside the Vodou priesthood do not have the skills to communicate directly with the spirits or gods. This is because the human body is merely flesh, which the spirits can borrow to reveal themselves via possession. ''manbos'', however, can speak to and hear from the Vodou spirits. As a result, they can interpret the advice or warnings sent by a spirit to specific individuals or communities. Cécile Fatiman is a Haitian ''manbo'' famously known for sacrificing a black pig in the August
1791 Events January–March * January 1 – Austrian composer Joseph Haydn arrives in England, to perform a series of concerts. * January 2 – Northwest Indian War: Big Bottom Massacre – The war begins in the Ohio Country ...
Vodou ceremony at
Bois Caïman Bois Caïman ( ht, Bwa Kayiman, lit=Alligator Forest) was the site of the first major meeting of enslaved blacks during which the first major slave insurrection of the Haitian Revolution was planned. Role during the Haitian Revolution Before ...
—an act that is said to have ignited the Haitian Revolution. There are also notable ''manbos'' within the United States.
Marie Laveau Marie Catherine Laveau (September 10, 1801 – June 15, 1881)''Marie Laveau The Mysterious Voodoo Queen: A Study of Powerful Female Leadership in Nineteenth-Century New Orleans'' by Ina Johanna Fandrich was a Louisiana Creole practitioner of ...
(1801-1888), for example, gained fame in
New Orleans New Orleans ( , ,New Orleans
,
Louisiana Louisiana , group=pronunciation (French: ''La Louisiane'') is a state in the Deep South and South Central regions of the United States. It is the 20th-smallest by area and the 25th most populous of the 50 U.S. states. Louisiana is borde ...
, for her personal charm and
Louisiana Voodoo Louisiana Voodoo (french: Vaudou louisianais, es, Vudú de Luisiana), also known as New Orleans Voodoo, is an African diasporic religion which originated in Louisiana, now in the southern United States. It arose through a process of syncreti ...
practices. Renowned as Louisiana's "voodoo queen", Laveau's legacy is kept alive in American popular culture (e.g., the television series '' America Horror Story: Coven''). Mama Lola is another prominent ''manbo'' and Vodou spiritual leader in the United States. She rose to fame after the publication of
Karen McCarthy Brown Karen McCarthy Brown (August 12, 1942 – March 4, 2015) was an anthropologist specializing in the anthropology of religion. She is best known for her groundbreaking book ''Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn'', which made great strides in des ...
's ethnographic account ''Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn''. Mama Lola's success provided her with a platform to challenge Western misconceptions of Haitian Vodou and make television appearances.


Etymology and history

Haitian Vodou gains its historic roots from the former
West Africa West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, M ...
n kingdom of Dahomey, which Europeans also called the "Bight of Benin". Populated by the Fon, Ewe, and
Yoruba people The Yoruba people (, , ) are a West African ethnic group that mainly inhabit parts of Nigeria, Benin, and Togo. The areas of these countries primarily inhabited by Yoruba are often collectively referred to as Yorubaland. The Yoruba constitut ...
, this region covers roughly what is known today as
Benin Benin ( , ; french: Bénin , ff, Benen), officially the Republic of Benin (french: République du Bénin), and formerly Dahomey, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east, Burkina Faso to the nort ...
and western
Nigeria Nigeria ( ), , ig, Naìjíríyà, yo, Nàìjíríà, pcm, Naijá , ff, Naajeeriya, kcg, Naijeriya officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf o ...
. During the
slave trade Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
, many Fon and Ewe-speaking Dahomeyans were enslaved and used as the labor force for the sugar industry of French Saint Domingue (modern-day Haiti). As a result, Vodou has elements that can be traced back to the Fon people. For instance, the term ''manbo'' stems from the Fon term ''nanbo'', which means "mother of
magic Magic or Magick most commonly refers to: * Magic (supernatural), beliefs and actions employed to influence supernatural beings and forces * Ceremonial magic, encompasses a wide variety of rituals of magic * Magical thinking, the belief that unrela ...
". Like the ''nanbo'' in
West African Vodun Vodun (meaning ''spirit'' in the Fon, Gun and Ewe languages, with a nasal high-tone ''u''; also spelled Vodon, Vodoun, Vodou, Vudu, Voudou, Voodoo, etc.) is a religion practiced by the Aja, Ewe, and Fon peoples of Benin, Togo, Ghana, and ...
, Haitian ''manbos'' play a vital role in Vodou temples and rituals. Contact with deities or spirits is considered dangerous. For this reason, many West African religions require male and/or female professionals (priests, priestesses, diviners,
herbalist Herbal medicine (also herbalism) is the study of pharmacognosy and the use of medicinal plants, which are a basis of traditional medicine. With worldwide research into pharmacology, some herbal medicines have been translated into modern remed ...
s, etc.) who know the rituals, dances, songs, and objects that can be used to approach deities or spirits without upsetting them. Enslaved Africans brought these gendered notions of religious leadership with them to the New World. As a result, female religious figures are part of the religions of the African Diaspora (e.g., ''manbos'' in Haitian Vodou). The dominance of Vodou female practitioners later became prevalent in the urban contexts of Haiti and nineteenth-century
New Orleans New Orleans ( , ,New Orleans
in
French Louisiana The term French Louisiana refers to two distinct regions: * first, to colonial French Louisiana, comprising the massive, middle section of North America claimed by France during the 17th and 18th centuries; and, * second, to modern French Louisi ...
.


Vodou priesthood

Generally, ''manbos'' and '' oungans'' serve as the heads of autonomous Vodou religious groups—rather than clerical hierarchies—and exert their authority over the devotees or spiritual servants in their
temples A temple (from the Latin ) is a building reserved for spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. Religions which erect temples include Christianity (whose temples are typically called churches), Hinduism (whose temples ...
. They have the ability to call upon deities or spirits to remove barriers between the spiritual and the earthly realms. Before they can put these skills into practice, these priests and priestesses receive a technical education wherein they learn about the different Vodou spirits and ritualistic practices. They must also cultivate a ''konesans'' (
knowledge Knowledge can be defined as Descriptive knowledge, awareness of facts or as Procedural knowledge, practical skills, and may also refer to Knowledge by acquaintance, familiarity with objects or situations. Knowledge of facts, also called pro ...
)—typically regarded as intuition,
psychic A psychic is a person who claims to use extrasensory perception (ESP) to identify information hidden from the normal senses, particularly involving telepathy or clairvoyance, or who performs acts that are apparently inexplicable by natural laws ...
power, or the "gift of eyes". Stemming from supernatural gifts, a ''konesans'' affords Vodou priests and priestesses the ability to read people and heal them. This, in turn, allows them to diagnose and treat human sufferings, which they ascribe to the living, the dead, or the spirit world. The Vodou spirits choose ''manbos'' and ''oungans'' either through
revelation In religion and theology, revelation is the revealing or disclosing of some form of truth or knowledge through communication with a deity or other supernatural entity or entities. Background Inspiration – such as that bestowed by God on the ...
s in a
dream A dream is a succession of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that usually occur involuntarily in the mind during certain stages of sleep. Humans spend about two hours dreaming per night, and each dream lasts around 5 to 20 minutes, althou ...
or the utterances of a possessed person. These candidates for priesthood are then taken under the wing of a ''manbo'' or ''oungan'' for days, months or even years. Although anyone can receive the call from the spirits to enter the priesthood, the ''oungan'' and ''manbo'' profession is oftentimes hereditary. Nevertheless, those called to be a ''manbo'' or ''oungan'' will rarely refuse the position in fear of being severely punished by the gods. In a ' (Vodou temple), ''manbos'' and ''oungans'' are commonly referred to as ''manman'' (mother) and ''papa'' (father) respectively. ''Hounfos'' are highly decorated religious places of worship and contain one or more stone altars for deities or spirits. Some priests or priestesses draw large followings in their ''hounfo'', which aid them in establishing notable reputations. Thus, with the office of the ''oungan'' or ''manbo'' comes power, prestige, and wealth. There are, however, other positions and roles meant to help a head priest or priestess. For instance, '' hunsi'' are devotees who have gone through the rite of fire, abide by the orders of the ''manbo'' and are qualified to assist with ritual activities. The ''hunsi'' are further subdivided based on particular tasks (e.g., the ''hungenikon'' (song leader) and ''laplace'' (master of ceremonies and sword holder)). Patriarchal structures with male priesthood often prevail in rural areas of Haiti. Female leadership, on the other hand, is often seen in urban centers such as Port-au-Prince (the capital of Haiti). The autonomous nature of the Vodou priesthood enables ''manbos'' to exercise leadership entirely independent of male control. Despite providing female practitioners with greater social mobility, Vodou still mirrors aspects of
misogyny Misogyny () is hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against women. It is a form of sexism that is used to keep women at a lower social status than men, thus maintaining the societal roles of patriarchy. Misogyny has been widely practice ...
in Haitian culture. For instance, ''oungans'' are more prone to undergo scrutiny for the mistreatment of female ''hunsi'' in their temples.


Initiation rituals

''Manbos'' must undergo a multi-step initiation process to enter the priesthood and establish their communication with the Vodou spirits. One of the main goals of Vodou initiation ceremonies is to strengthen the ''manbo''s ''konesans''. The first step in initiation is ''lave tèt'' (head washing), which is aimed at the spirits housed in an individual's head. It is believed that the head contains the ' (big
guardian angel A guardian angel is a type of angel that is assigned to protect and guide a particular person, group or nation. Belief in tutelary beings can be traced throughout all antiquity. The idea of angels that guard over people played a major role in A ...
)—a spirit that directs a person's consciousness and provides ancestral/spiritual wisdom. An agitated ' can cause an individual to lose their insight and understanding. Head washing works to circumvent this issue by "refreshing" these restive head spirits. ''Kanzo'', a trial by fire, is the second step of initiation. During this
rite of passage A rite of passage is a ceremony or ritual of the passage which occurs when an individual leaves one group to enter another. It involves a significant change of status in society. In cultural anthropology the term is the Anglicisation of ''rite ...
, hot materials from boiling pots are pressed into the initiate's left hand and left foot. This step is used to purify the initiate and transform their suffering into power. The ''kanzo'' ritual is important because it places the initiate under the direct care of a ''
loa ( ), also called loa or loi, are spirits in the African diasporic religion of Haitian Vodou. They have also been incorporated into some revivalist forms of Louisiana Voodoo. Many of the lwa derive their identities in part from deities venerat ...
'' (also spelled ''lwa'', Vodou spirits). The next step is known as ' (to lie down), which is when the initiate enters a period of seclusion. The future ''manbo'' is locked in the d''jévò'' (initiation room) for nine days with an ''
ason was a prestigious hereditary noble title in Japan, used mainly between Asuka and Heian periods. At first, it was the second highest, below '' Mahito'', which was given to members of the Imperial family, but after Heian period it became the h ...
''. The ''ason'' is a beaded rattle that ''manbos'' and ''oungans'' use in Southern Haiti to give them leverage in the spirit realm. The final step of initiation is the transferred ownership of the ''ason'' to the ''manbo'' or ''oungan'' in training. Possession of the ason enables the initiates to take on their formal roles and start their healing work. There are different reasons as why Vodou practitioners perform
rituals A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or objects, performed according to a set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized, b ...
and
ceremonies A ceremony (, ) is a unified ritualistic event with a purpose, usually consisting of a number of artistic components, performed on a special occasion. The word may be of Etruscan origin, via the Latin '' caerimonia''. Church and civil (secular ...
. Some believers view their relationship with the gods and spirits as a binding contract in which humans are obliged to provide the spirits rituals or ceremonies in exchange for protection. By serving and communicating with the spirits via rituals, devotees can bring about good luck, ward off evil, and heal the sick. As religious specialists, ''manbos'' know the Vodou spirits by their names, attributes, and symbols. They utilize this information during rituals to call upon the spirits and interact with them—whether it be through song, dance, prayer, offerings, or the drawing of ''
vèvè A ''veve'' (also spelled ''vèvè'' or ''vevè'') is a religious symbol commonly used in different branches of Vodun throughout the African diaspora, such as Haitian Vodou and Louisiana Voodoo. The ''veve'' acts as a "beacon" for the '' loa'', ...
s'' (spiritual symbols). Theatrical aspects such as drumming, singing, and dancing are used by ''manbos'' as a means of "heating up" the process through which a person enters a state of possession or
trance Trance is a state of semi-consciousness in which a person is not self-aware and is either altogether unresponsive to external stimuli (but nevertheless capable of pursuing and realizing an aim) or is selectively responsive in following the dir ...
. During rituals, ''manbos'' may either be possessed by a ''loa'' themselves, or may oversee the possession of other devotees.
Spirit possession Spirit possession is an unusual or altered state of consciousness and associated behaviors purportedly caused by the control of a human body by spirits, ghosts, demons, or gods. The concept of spirit possession exists in many cultures and re ...
is one of the most important goals in Vodou rituals because it puts human beings in direct contact with the spirits. During possession, an individual's consciousness and sense of control leaves their body, which increases mental and corporeal reception of the spirits. The possessed individual becomes a vessel for the spirit to reveal its persona and cosmic knowledge. This is important because Vodou spirits can offer advice, healing, or even warnings to the individuals in a place of worship. Although ''loa'' can incarnate themselves in whomever they choose, the intimacy afforded to the devotees does not include a direct communication with the spirits or gods. This is because the human body is merely flesh, which the spirits can borrow to reveal themselves via possession. ''manbos'', however, have the knowledge and training necessary to speak to and hear from the Vodou spirits. Since human contact with the spiritual realm can be a dangerous endeavor, ''manbos'' use their skills to supervise possessions and actively direct individuals back to consciousness.


Notable ''manbos'' and popular culture

Cécile Fatiman is famously known for her participation in the August
1791 Events January–March * January 1 – Austrian composer Joseph Haydn arrives in England, to perform a series of concerts. * January 2 – Northwest Indian War: Big Bottom Massacre – The war begins in the Ohio Country ...
Vodou ceremony at
Bois Caïman Bois Caïman ( ht, Bwa Kayiman, lit=Alligator Forest) was the site of the first major meeting of enslaved blacks during which the first major slave insurrection of the Haitian Revolution was planned. Role during the Haitian Revolution Before ...
, which is considered to be a catalyst for the Haitian Revolution. This historical Vodou priestess inspired the first act of the uprising by sacrificing a black pig and sharing the blood with other slaves. Following the ceremony at Bois Caïman, a
slave revolt A slave rebellion is an armed uprising by enslaved people, as a way of fighting for their freedom. Rebellions of enslaved people have occurred in nearly all societies that practice slavery or have practiced slavery in the past. A desire for freed ...
began on August 21, 1791, resulting in the destruction of
plantation A plantation is an agricultural estate, generally centered on a plantation house, meant for farming that specializes in cash crops, usually mainly planted with a single crop, with perhaps ancillary areas for vegetables for eating and so on. The ...
s surrounding Cap Français (modern-day Cap Haitien) and the deaths of thousands of French men, women and children. Another notable ''manbo'' was
Marie Laveau Marie Catherine Laveau (September 10, 1801 – June 15, 1881)''Marie Laveau The Mysterious Voodoo Queen: A Study of Powerful Female Leadership in Nineteenth-Century New Orleans'' by Ina Johanna Fandrich was a Louisiana Creole practitioner of ...
(1801–1888), a
Louisiana Creole Louisiana Creole ( lou, Kréyòl Lalwizyàn, links=no) is a French-based creole language spoken by fewer than 10,000 people, mostly in the state of Louisiana. It is spoken today by people who may racially identify as White, Black, mixed, and N ...
woman who became a legendary Voodoo practitioner in New Orleans. Like its Haitian counterpart, New Orleans Voodoo was brought by enslaved Africans from West Africa to French Louisiana during the slave trade. Contrary to popular belief, Haitian Vodou and
Louisiana Voodoo Louisiana Voodoo (french: Vaudou louisianais, es, Vudú de Luisiana), also known as New Orleans Voodoo, is an African diasporic religion which originated in Louisiana, now in the southern United States. It arose through a process of syncreti ...
are not the same—these African diaspora religions have their own history and identity. From its beginning, female practitioners played a dominant role in New Orleans Voodoo. Approximately eighty percent of Voodoo leaders were said to be women during Laveau's time. Laveau herself gained great fame for her personal charm and Voodoo practices. Today, she is still renowned as Louisiana's "voodoo queen". Her legacy and image as a Voodoo practitioner lives on in modern-day popular culture. For instance, a fictionalized Marie Laveau (played by actress Angela Bassett) appears in the third season of ''American Horror Story''. Marie Thérèse Alourdes Macena Champagne Lovinski, also known as Mama Lola (1933-2020), was a prominent ''manbo'' and Vodou spiritual leader in the United States born and raised in Haiti. She rose to public prominence after the publication of
Karen McCarthy Brown Karen McCarthy Brown (August 12, 1942 – March 4, 2015) was an anthropologist specializing in the anthropology of religion. She is best known for her groundbreaking book ''Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn'', which made great strides in des ...
's ethnographic account, ''Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn''. In 1963, at the age of thirty years old, Mama Lola emigrated to
Brooklyn Brooklyn () is a borough of New York City, coextensive with Kings County, in the U.S. state of New York. Kings County is the most populous county in the State of New York, and the second-most densely populated county in the United States, be ...
, New York, in search of greater opportunities. During one of her visits back to Haiti, the warrior spirit
Ogou Ogou is a prefecture located in the Plateaux Region of Togo. The prefecture seat is located in Atakpamé Atakpamé is the fifth largest city in Togo by population (84,979 inhabitants in 2006), located in the Plateaux Region of Togo. It is an ...
possessed Mama Lola's mother Philomise Macena and revealed to Mama Lola that the spirits wished that she fulfill her calling into the Vodou priesthood. She underwent a series of rituals in Haiti over multiple visits to complete this high level of initiation. Brown explains that her role as a practicing ''manbo'' was one that "combines the skills of a medical doctor, a psychotherapist, a social worker, and a priest". Mama Lola conducted most of her spiritual work in Brooklyn, played an active role in her hometown through visits and material support, and performed rituals and healing work throughout the eastern United States, Canada, elsewhere in the Caribbean, and Benin. Her greater visibility after the publication of ''Mama Lola: A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn'' and growing participation in the public sphere provided her with a platform to reshape American perceptions of Vodou, achieve greater recognition in New York's Haitian community, and attract the attention of people unfamiliar with Haiti and Vodou. One of her appearances in U.S. popular media included that as a 2007 guest on Season 2 Episode 7 ("Mama Lola Knows Best") of the reality TV show '' Tori & Dean: Home Sweet Hollywood.''


References

{{Afro-American Religions Haitian Vodou practitioners Haitian clergy