Malherbe's parakeet (''Cyanoramphus malherbi''), usually known as the orange-fronted parakeet ( mi, kākāriki karaka), is a small parrot
endemic
Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found else ...
to New Zealand. In New Zealand it is always known as the orange-fronted parakeet, a name it shares with a
species from Central America, while in the rest of the world it is known as Malherbe's parakeet.
[BirdLife International (2016]
Species factsheet: ''Cyanoramphus malherbi''.
Downloaded from www.birdlife.org on 2016/03/23 Restricted to a few valleys in the South Island and four offshore islands, its population declined to around 200 in the 1990s, and it is considered critically endangered.
Taxonomy
The genus ''
Cyanoramphus
''Cyanoramphus'' is a genus of parakeets native to New Zealand and islands of the southern Pacific Ocean. The New Zealand forms are often referred to as kākāriki. They are small to medium-sized parakeets with long tails and predominantly gree ...
'' is endemic to New Zealand and surrounding islands
[Kearvell, J; Grant, A; Boon, W (2003). "The orange-fronted parakeet (''Cyanoramphus malherbi'') is a distinct species: a review of recent research on its taxonomy and systematic relationship within the genus ''Cyanoramphus"''. ''Notornis'', 50: 27–35] and it has been proposed that the ancestor of ''Cyanoramphus'' dispersed from New Caledonia to New Zealand via Norfolk Island 500,000 years ago.
[Boon, W; Kearvell, J; Daugherty, C; Chambers, G. (2001). "Molecular Systematics and Conservation of Kakariki (''Cyaniramphus'' spp.'')".'' ''Science for Conservation 176'', Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand]
Controversy has surrounded the classification of this bird; is it its own species or a
colour morph of the similar
yellow-crowned parakeet
The yellow-crowned parakeet (''Cyanoramphus auriceps'') is a species of parakeet endemic to the islands of New Zealand. The species is found across the main three islands of New Zealand, North Island, South Island and Stewart Island/Rakiura, as ...
(''C. auriceps'')?
It was described in 1857 from a museum specimen of unknown origin; its species name honours the French ornithologist
Alfred Malherbe
Alfred Malherbe (14 July 1804 – 14 August 1865) was a French magistrate and amateur naturalist born in Mauritius to Pierre Marie François Malherbe and Rosalie Le Meusnier Molineuf. The family originally came from Metz. Alfred became the adm ...
. During the late 1800s ornithologists considered it to be a distinct species, but during the latter half of the 20th century it was often considered a colour morph;
[Nixon, A.J. (1981). "The External Morphology and Taxonomic Status of the Orange-fronted Parakeet". ''Notornis'' 28: 292–300] as recently as 1990, the Ornithological Society of New Zealand listed it as a form of ''C. auriceps''.
After analysis using molecular genetic methods in 2000, the current consensus among researchers, which is accepted by the
New Zealand Department of Conservation
The Department of Conservation (DOC; Māori: ''Te Papa Atawhai'') is the public service department of New Zealand charged with the conservation of New Zealand's natural and historical heritage.
An advisory body, the New Zealand Conservation Au ...
, is that ''Cyanoramphus malherbi'' is a distinct species.
Description
![Malherbes](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Malherbes.jpg)
''Cyanoramphus malherbi'' is a medium size parrot, approximately 20 centimetres long. Its body is primarily a bright blue-green, with azure blue primary covert and leading edge feathers on its wings.
It has a distinctive (and diagnostic) orange frontal band on its yellow crown, but this is absent in juvenile birds, which have fully green heads.
[Kearvell, J; Connor, C; Farley, M. (2014). "Field identification of the orange-fronted parakeet (''Cyanoramphus malherbi''): pitfalls for the unwary". ''Notornis'' 61(4): 200–204] The orange frontal band begins to develop when the bird is 2–5 weeks old.
Its rump has orange patches on the sides. Colouration in males tends to be brighter, and juveniles are distinctly duller.
The only reliable features that separate mature orange-fronted parakeets from the similar yellow-crowned parakeet (''C. auriceps'') are the colour of the frontal band and rump.
Distribution and habitat
The species is found in only three regions on New Zealand's
South Island: the South Branch
Hurunui River valley,
Hawdon River
The Hawdon River is a river of New Zealand. One of the headwaters of Canterbury's Waimakariri River, it flows south through Arthur's Pass National Park, reaching the Waimakariri to the north of the settlement of Cass.
See also
*List of rivers of ...
valley, and the Poulter valley. In addition, there are four translocated populations, found on
Maud Island
Maud Island, also called Te Hoiere in the Māori language, is one of the larger islands in the Marlborough Sounds on the northern tip of the South Island of New Zealand, with a total area of .
Fauna
Maud Island is an important predator free na ...
,
Blumine Island
Blumine Island / is an island in the outer reaches of Queen Charlotte Sound / Tōtaranui, in the Marlborough Sounds at the northern end of New Zealand's South Island.
The New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage gives a translation of "mee ...
,
Chalky Island, and
Mayor Island / Tuhua
In many countries, a mayor is the highest-ranking official in a Municipal corporation, municipal government such as that of a city or a town. Worldwide, there is a wide variance in local laws and customs regarding the powers and responsibilities ...
.
[Gaze, P., Cash, B. (2008) ''A history of wildlife translocations in the Marlborough Sounds'', Occasional Publication No. 72, Nelson: Department of Conservation]
In the South Island, the parakeet is predominantly found only in ''
Nothofagus
''Nothofagus'', also known as the southern beeches, is a genus of 43 species of trees and shrubs native to the Southern Hemisphere in southern South America (Chile, Argentina) and Australasia (east and southeast Australia, New Zealand, New Gui ...
''/''
Fuscospora'' (beech) forest
with some reports from alpine and subalpine tussock and open
matagouri shrubland.
[Harrison, M. (1970). "The Orange-fronted Parakeet (''Cyanoramphus malherbi'')". ''Notornis'' 17 (2): 115–125]
On Maud Island, one study found that the parakeet prefers areas with greater canopy cover and lower understory and ground cover.
[Ortiz-Catedral, L. (2012). "Habitat use by the critically endangered orange-fronted parakeet (''Cyanoramphus malherbi'') on Maud Island: its relevance for future translocations". ''Notornis'' 59: 148-152] The species is not restricted to this type of forest, however, and as its population density increases it may make more use of other habitats.
Behaviour
The parakeet is most often observed foraging, preening, and resting. They prefer the upper stratum of forests, but also frequent lower strata more often than ''C. auriceps''.
Diet and feeding
The orange-fronted parakeet typically feeds in the canopy of NZ beech trees, but will also forage in low vegetation and on the ground.
They are typically observed feeding in flocks of mixed species, eating various seeds, beech flowers, buds and invertebrates.
During spring, invertebrates become a significant part of their diet, including
leaf roller moth and
fungus moth
Tineidae is a family of moths in the order Lepidoptera described by Pierre André Latreille in 1810. Collectively, they are known as fungus moths or tineid moths. The family contains considerably more than 3,000 species in more than 300 genera. ...
caterpillars, other Lepidoptera, and aphids.
They have been observed feeding on herbs and ferns on the ground, including ''
Pratia
''Pratia'' is a formerly recognized genus of flowering plants in the family Campanulaceae, native to Asia, Australia and New Zealand. Along with other genera, such as ''Hypsela'' and ''Isotoma'', it is now included in ''Lobelia''.
Former species i ...
'', ''
Oreomyrrhis colensoi,
Parahebe lyallii,
Leptinella maniototo'' and ''
Blechnum penna-marina
''Austroblechnum penna-marina'', synonym ''Blechnum penna-marina'', known as Antarctic hard-fern, alpine water fern and pinque (Chilean Spanish), is a species of fern in the family Blechnaceae, with a natural range from the Araucanía Region to ...
''.
During mast years, beech seeds become the dominant feature of their diet.
The Maud Island population appears to have different dietary preferences to mainland populations, eating more plant species and fewer invertebrates.
Breeding
Orange-fronted parakeets are monogamous and able to nest year round, but peak breeding is between December and April. They primarily nest in natural hollows or cavities of mature beech trees,
preferring red beech (''
Fuscospora fusca
''Nothofagus fusca'', commonly known as red beech (Māori: tawhai raunui) is a species of southern beech, endemic to New Zealand, where it occurs on both the North Island and South Island. Generally it is found on lower hills and inland valley ...
'').
On Maud Island they were found to nest in ''
Pinus radiata
''Pinus radiata'' ( syn. ''Pinus insignis''), the Monterey pine, insignis pine or radiata pine, is a species of pine native to the Central Coast of California and Mexico ( Guadalupe Island and Cedros island). It is an evergreen conifer in the ...
'' forests.
Clutch size is around 7 eggs with an incubation period of 21–26 days.
The female exclusively incubates and the male feeds her. Nestlings fledge between 43 and 71 days, but remain dependent for 2–4 weeks.
Their breeding is also linked to the production of beech seed during mast years.
During seeding events, and other periods where food is plentiful, they are able to produce secondary clutches, with some pairs reportedly breeding up to four times in succession.
Status
The orange-fronted parakeet was classified as Nationally Endangered by the
New Zealand Department of Conservation
The Department of Conservation (DOC; Māori: ''Te Papa Atawhai'') is the public service department of New Zealand charged with the conservation of New Zealand's natural and historical heritage.
An advisory body, the New Zealand Conservation Au ...
in 2012 and Critically Endangered by the
IUCN.
In the 19th century the species was widespread, occurring throughout New Zealand's South Island. The birds were semi-nomadic, dispersing in search of food when numbers were high.
This behaviour has stopped due to low numbers and habitat modification, which also has implications for re-establishment of the species.
Prior to 2000, the parrot's population numbered in the hundreds in the South Island, but fell from 500–700 individuals to an estimated 100–200 by 2004, due to significant increases in rat and stoat populations, in particular a rat plague during 2001.
[Elliot, G.P.; Suggate, R. 2007. ''Operation Ark: three year progress report''. Christchurch, Department of Conservation]
The Hawdon River valley houses the largest population, with 70–200 individuals reported in 2013, but numbers are apparently decreasing.
The Poulter valley population also declined in 2013, with approximately 40–80 individuals now occurring in this region. The South Branch Hurunui River valley population is even smaller, as few as 20–40 birds.
The world population of this species was estimated to be 290–690 individuals in 2013, with translocated island populations making up 160–420 of these birds. Determining exact numbers of the parakeet is difficult, however, due to their rarity, quiet nature, and similarities to ''C. auriceps''.
Threats
The original decline in population was most likely due to
habitat destruction
Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) is the process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species. The organisms that previously inhabited the site are displaced or dead, thereby ...
and fragmentation by human activity, hunting,
[Innes, J; Kelly, D; Overton, J; Gilles, C. (2010). "Predation and other factors currently limiting New Zealand forest birds" ''New Zealand Journal of Ecology'' 34: 86–114] and predation from exotic species.
Hunting has ceased and their habitat is protected, but
habitat fragmentation may also continue to threaten the orange-fronted parakeet.
Orange-fronted parakeets evolved in isolation from land mammals, so are especially vulnerable to introduced predators. Their current decline is due to predation from stoats (
''Mustela ermine''), rats (''
Rattus
''Rattus'' is a genus of muroid rodents, all typically called rats. However, the term rat can also be applied to rodent species outside of this genus.
Species and description
The best-known ''Rattus'' species are the black rat (''R. rattus'') ...
'' spp.), and brushtail possums (''
Trichosurus vulpecula
The common brushtail possum (''Trichosurus vulpecula'', from the Greek for "furry tailed" and the Latin for "little fox", previously in the genus ''Phalangista'') is a nocturnal, semiarboreal marsupial of the family Phalangeridae, native to Austr ...
) '' which target eggs and nestlings.
One population was reduced by 85% in 2001 due to predator irruption after a beech mast (a season of high production by
southern beech
''Nothofagus'', also known as the southern beeches, is a genus of 43 species of trees and shrubs native to the Southern Hemisphere in southern South America (Chile, Argentina) and Australasia (east and southeast Australia, New Zealand, New Gui ...
).
Deer and possums also contribute to ''C. malherbi'' decline through forest destruction.
Competition for food may also be a factor. Introduced birds, mice, wasps, and rats are considerably reducing invertebrate numbers, which the parakeet relies on during winter and spring.
The parakeet is however a food generalist and may compensate with other food sources, as observed on Maud Island. This dietary flexibility is promising for species recovery.
Inbreeding depression
Inbreeding depression is the reduced biological fitness which has the potential to result from inbreeding (the breeding of related individuals). Biological fitness refers to an organism's ability to survive and perpetuate its genetic material. ...
and low genetic diversity may affect the viability of these small populations by reducing their capacity to adapt threats and diseases.
The specialised nesting habitat of the orange-fronted parakeet increases its vulnerability to extinction.
The reasons for this include: (1) a single nest opening means that incubating females may be unable to escape from invading predators and will also be killed, (2) because only females incubate, predation may cause a biased sex ratio, (3) their relatively long nesting period (when compared to other passerines) increases their vulnerability to predation, and (4) the chicks tend to be noisy and therefore more attractive to predators.
Furthermore, in beech
silviculture
Silviculture is the practice of controlling the growth, composition/structure, and quality of forests to meet values and needs, specifically timber production.
The name comes from the Latin ('forest') and ('growing'). The study of forests and wo ...
the trees are not given enough time to develop adequate hollows before they are harvested, thereby reducing the number of suitable nesting sites in managed beech forests.
Introduced
starlings
Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds in the family Sturnidae. The Sturnidae are named for the genus '' Sturnus'', which in turn comes from the Latin word for starling, ''sturnus''. Many Asian species, particularly the larger ones, ...
may also be outcompeting the parrot for nesting sites.
Conservation
Malherbe's parakeet is absolutely protected under New Zealand's
Wildlife Act 1953
Wildlife Act 1953 is an Act of Parliament in New Zealand. Under the act, the majority of native New Zealand vertebrate species are protected by law, and may not be hunted, killed, eaten or possessed. Violations may be punished with fines of up to ...
. The species is also listed under Appendix II of the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) meaning international export/import (including parts and derivatives) is regulated.
Predator management is the main strategy to reverse this species' decline.
All three mainland populations come under the "Operation Ark" initiative, which controls stoat, possum and rat populations through integrated pest management, with particular focus on reducing the effect of predator plagues.
These pest management strategies have worked with other New Zealand bird species to reduce predation by introduced mammals.
[O'Donnell, C; Hoare, J. (2012). "Quantifying the benefits of long-term integrated pest control for forest bird populations in a New Zealand temperate rainforest". ''New Zealand Journal of Ecology'' 36 (2)]
Individual nest sites are also protected from predators using metal tree-trunk wraps; this has been a successful programme and only one nest out of 153 has been lost to predators since 2003.
The other major conservation strategy is captive breeding programmes carried out at Peacock Springs by the Isaac Wildlife Trust, with individuals being released on predator-free islands.
Birds are placed in portable aviaries in the forest to acclimatise them before release.
A total of 45 birds were released between 2005 and 2007 on
Chalky Island, off the coast of
Fiordland
Fiordland is a geographical region of New Zealand in the south-western corner of the South Island, comprising the westernmost third of Southland. Most of Fiordland is dominated by the steep sides of the snow-capped Southern Alps, deep lake ...
. The local population had increased to 150 individuals in 2009, and 100–200 by 2011, but had declined to 50–150 individuals in 2013.
Sixty-eight individuals were released on
Maud Island
Maud Island, also called Te Hoiere in the Māori language, is one of the larger islands in the Marlborough Sounds on the northern tip of the South Island of New Zealand, with a total area of .
Fauna
Maud Island is an important predator free na ...
in the
Marlborough Sounds
The Marlborough Sounds are an extensive network of sea-drowned valleys at the northern end of the South Island of New Zealand. The Marlborough Sounds were created by a combination of land subsidence and rising sea levels. According to Māori ...
between 2007 and 2009, but 2013 the island's population consisted of only 10–20 birds.
Orange-fronted parakeets have also been translocated to
Mayor Island / Tuhua
In many countries, a mayor is the highest-ranking official in a Municipal corporation, municipal government such as that of a city or a town. Worldwide, there is a wide variance in local laws and customs regarding the powers and responsibilities ...
in the
Bay of Plenty
The Bay of Plenty ( mi, Te Moana-a-Toi) is a region of New Zealand, situated around a bight of the same name in the northern coast of the North Island. The bight stretches 260 km from the Coromandel Peninsula in the west to Cape Runaw ...
and
Blumine Island
Blumine Island / is an island in the outer reaches of Queen Charlotte Sound / Tōtaranui, in the Marlborough Sounds at the northern end of New Zealand's South Island.
The New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage gives a translation of "mee ...
in the Marlborough Sounds; estimated population in 2013 were 50–150 and 50–100 birds respectively. These two populations, however, are not as well studied as those on Chalky Island and Maud Island.
References
External links
* Orange-fronted parakeet discussed on RadioNZ's ''Critter of the Week''
24 February 2017Films of the Malherbe's Parakeetat the Cornell Lab of Ornithology
{{Taxonbar, from=Q690284
Malherbe's parakeet
Malherbe's parakeet
Birds of the South Island
Malherbe's parakeet
Endemic birds of New Zealand
Parrots of Oceania