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Mahmud II ( ota, محمود ثانى, Maḥmûd-u s̠ânî, tr, II. Mahmud; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the 30th
Sultan Sultan (; ar, سلطان ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it ...
of the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
from 1808 until his death in 1839. His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms he instituted, which culminated in the Decree of Tanzimat ("reorganization") that was carried out by his sons
Abdulmejid I Abdulmejid I ( ota, عبد المجيد اول, ʿAbdü'l-Mecîd-i evvel, tr, I. Abdülmecid; 25 April 182325 June 1861) was the 31st Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and succeeded his father Mahmud II on 2 July 1839. His reign was notable for the r ...
and Abdülaziz. Often described as "
Peter the Great Peter I ( – ), most commonly known as Peter the Great,) or Pyotr Alekséyevich ( rus, Пётр Алексе́евич, p=ˈpʲɵtr ɐlʲɪˈksʲejɪvʲɪtɕ, , group=pron was a Russian monarch who ruled the Tsardom of Russia from t ...
of Turkey", Mahmud's reforms included the 1826 abolition of the conservative
Janissary corps A Janissary ( ota, یڭیچری, yeŋiçeri, , ) was a member of the elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultan's household troops and the first modern standing army in Europe. The corps was most likely established under sultan Orhan ...
, which removed a major obstacle to his and his successors' reforms in the Empire. The reforms he instituted were characterized by political and social changes, which would eventually lead to the birth of the modern
Turkish Republic Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula in ...
. Notwithstanding his domestic reforms, Mahmud's reign was also marked by nationalist uprisings in Ottoman-ruled Serbia and Greece, leading to a loss of territory for the Empire following the emergence of an independent Greek state. In terms of the general social structure of the Ottoman Empire, Mahmud's reign was characterized by a major interest in
Westernization Westernization (or Westernisation), also Europeanisation or occidentalization (from the ''Occident''), is a process whereby societies come under or adopt Western culture in areas such as industry, technology, science, education, politics, econo ...
; institutions, palace order, daily life, clothing, music and many other areas saw radical reform as the Ottoman Empire opened up to the modernization.


Early life

Mahmud II was born on 20 July 1785, in the month of Ramazan. He was the son of
Abdul Hamid I Abdülhamid or Abdul Hamid I ( ota, عبد الحميد اول, ''`Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i evvel''; tr, Birinci Abdülhamid; 20 March 1725 – 7 April 1789) was the 27th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning over the Ottoman Empire from 1774 ...
and his Seven consort Nakşidil Kadin. He was the youngest son of his father, and the second child of his mother, he had an elder brother, Şehzade Seyfullah Murad, two years older than him, and a younger sister, Saliha Sultan, one year younger than him. According to tradition, he was confined in the
Kafes The Kafes ( ota, قفس, kafes, from ), literally "cage", was the part of the Imperial Harem of the Ottoman Palace where possible successors to the throne were kept under a form of house-arrest and constant surveillance by the palace guards. Th ...
after the death of his father.


Accession

His mother was Nakşidil
Valide Sultan #REDIRECT Valide sultan {{redirect category shell, {{R from move{{R from miscapitalization{{R unprintworthy ...
. In 1808, Mahmud II's predecessor, and half-brother,
Mustafa IV Mustafa IV (; ota, مصطفى رابع, translit=Muṣṭafâ-yi râbiʿ; 8 September 1779 – 16 November 1808) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1807 to 1808. Early life Mustafa IV was born on 8 September 1779 in Constantinople. He ...
ordered his execution along with his cousin, the deposed Sultan Selim III, in order to defuse the rebellion. Selim III was killed, but Mahmud was safely kept hidden by his mother and was placed on the throne after the rebels deposed Mustafa IV. The leader of this rebellion,
Alemdar Mustafa Pasha Alemdar Mustafa Pasha (also called Bayraktar Mustafa Pasha; born 1755, died 15 November 1808) was an Ottoman military commander and a Grand Vizier born in Hotin (modern Khotyn) in the then Ottoman territory of Ukraine in 1765. Of Albanian or ...
, later became Mahmud II's
vizier A vizier (; ar, وزير, wazīr; fa, وزیر, vazīr), or wazir, is a high-ranking political advisor or minister in the near east. The Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called ''katib'' (secretary), who was a ...
. There are many stories surrounding the circumstances of his attempted murder. A version by the 19th-century Ottoman historian
Ahmed Cevdet Pasha Ahmed Cevdet Pasha or Jevdet Pasha in English (22 March 1822 – 25 May 1895) was an Ottoman scholar, intellectual, bureaucrat, administrator, and historian who was a prominent figure in the Tanzimat reforms of the Ottoman Empire. He was the h ...
gives the following account: one of his slaves, a
Georgian Georgian may refer to: Common meanings * Anything related to, or originating from Georgia (country) ** Georgians, an indigenous Caucasian ethnic group ** Georgian language, a Kartvelian language spoken by Georgians **Georgian scripts, three scrip ...
girl named Cevri, gathered ashes when she heard the commotion in the palace surrounding the murder of Selim III. When the assassins approached the harem chambers where Mahmud was staying, she was able to keep them away for a while by throwing ashes into their faces, temporarily blinding them. This allowed Mahmud to escape through a window and climb onto the roof of the harem. He apparently ran to the roof of the Third Court where other pages saw him and helped him come down with pieces of clothes that were quickly tied together as a ladder. By this time one of the leaders of the rebellion,
Alemdar Mustafa Pasha Alemdar Mustafa Pasha (also called Bayraktar Mustafa Pasha; born 1755, died 15 November 1808) was an Ottoman military commander and a Grand Vizier born in Hotin (modern Khotyn) in the then Ottoman territory of Ukraine in 1765. Of Albanian or ...
arrived with his armed men, and upon seeing the dead body of Selim III proclaimed Mahmud as ''padishah''. The slave girl Cevri Kalfa was awarded for her bravery and loyalty and appointed ''haznedar usta'', the chief treasurer of the Imperial Harem, which was the second most important position in the hierarchy. A plain stone staircase at the ''Altınyol'' (Golden Way) of the Harem is called Staircase of Cevri (Jevri) Kalfa, since the events apparently happened around there and are associated with her.


Reign overview

The vizier took the initiative in resuming reforms that had been terminated by the conservative coup of 1807 that had brought Mustafa IV to power. However, he was killed during a rebellion in 1808 and Mahmud II temporarily abandoned the reforms. Mahmud II's later reformation efforts would be much more successful.


Russo-Turkish War of 1806–12

After Mahmud II became sultan, Turkish border wars with the Russians continued. In 1810, the Russians surrounded the Silistre fortress for the second time. When Emperor
Napoleon I of France Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
declared war on Russia in 1811, Russian repression on the Ottoman border diminished, a relief to Mahmud. By this time, Napoleon was about to embark on his invasion of Russia. He also invited the Ottomans to join his march on Russia. However, Napoleon, who had invaded all of Europe except the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire, could not be trusted and accepted as an ally; Mahmud rejected the offer. The Bucharest Agreement was reached with the Russians on 28 May 1812. According to the
Treaty of Bucharest (1812) The Treaty of Bucharest between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire, was signed on 28 May 1812, in Manuc's Inn in Bucharest, and ratified on 5 July 1812, at the end of the Russo-Turkish War of 1806–1812. The Ottomans had done poorly in ...
, the Ottoman Empire ceded the eastern half of
Moldavia Moldavia ( ro, Moldova, or , literally "The Country of Moldavia"; in Romanian Cyrillic: or ; chu, Землѧ Молдавскаѧ; el, Ἡγεμονία τῆς Μολδαβίας) is a historical region and former principality in Centr ...
to Russia (which renamed the territory as
Bessarabia Bessarabia (; Gagauz: ''Besarabiya''; Romanian: ''Basarabia''; Ukrainian: ''Бессара́бія'') is a historical region in Eastern Europe, bounded by the Dniester river on the east and the Prut river on the west. About two thirds of Be ...
), although it had committed to protecting that region. Russia became a new power in the lower Danube area, and had an economically, diplomatically, and militarily profitable frontier. In
Transcaucasia The South Caucasus, also known as Transcaucasia or the Transcaucasus, is a geographical region on the border of Eastern Europe and Western Asia, straddling the southern Caucasus Mountains. The South Caucasus roughly corresponds to modern Arme ...
, the Ottoman Empire regained nearly all it had lost in the east: Poti, Anapa and Akhalkalali. Russia retained Sukhum-Kale on the Abkhazian coast. In return, the Sultan accepted the Russian annexation of the
Kingdom of Imereti The Kingdom of Imereti ( ka, იმერეთის სამეფო, tr) was a Georgian monarchy established in 1455 by a member of the house of Bagrationi when the Kingdom of Georgia was dissolved into rival kingdoms. Before that time, Im ...
, in 1810. The treaty was approved by Emperor
Alexander I of Russia Alexander I (; – ) was Emperor of Russia from 1801, the first King of Congress Poland from 1815, and the Grand Duke of Finland from 1809 to his death. He was the eldest son of Emperor Paul I and Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg. The son of ...
on June 11, some 13 days before Napoleon's invasion began. The Russian commanders were able to get many of their soldiers in the Balkans back to the western areas of the empire before the expected attack of Napoleon.


War against the Saudi state

During the early years of Mahmud II's reign, his governor of Egypt
Muhammad Ali Pasha Muhammad Ali Pasha al-Mas'ud ibn Agha, also known as Muhammad Ali of Egypt and the Sudan ( sq, Mehmet Ali Pasha, ar, محمد علي باشا, ; ota, محمد علی پاشا المسعود بن آغا; ; 4 March 1769 – 2 August 1849), was ...
successfully waged the Ottoman-Saudi War and reconquered the holy cities of
Medina Medina,, ', "the radiant city"; or , ', (), "the city" officially Al Madinah Al Munawwarah (, , Turkish: Medine-i Münevvere) and also commonly simplified as Madīnah or Madinah (, ), is the Holiest sites in Islam, second-holiest city in Islam, ...
(1812) and
Mecca Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red ...
(1813) from the
First Saudi State The Emirate of Diriyah (), also known as the First Saudi State, was established in February 1727 (1139 AH). In 1744, the emir of Najdi town called Diriyah Muhammad bin Saud and the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab formed an alliance ...
.
Abdullah bin Saud Abdullah bin Saud Al Saud ( ar, عبد الله بن سعود آل سعود, ʿAbd Allāh bin Suʿūd Āl Suʿūd; died May 1819) was the ruler of the First Saudi State from 1814 to 1818. He was the last ruler of the First Saudi State and was exe ...
and the
First Saudi State The Emirate of Diriyah (), also known as the First Saudi State, was established in February 1727 (1139 AH). In 1744, the emir of Najdi town called Diriyah Muhammad bin Saud and the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab formed an alliance ...
had barred Muslims from the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
from entering the holy shrines of
Mecca Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red ...
and
Medina Medina,, ', "the radiant city"; or , ', (), "the city" officially Al Madinah Al Munawwarah (, , Turkish: Medine-i Münevvere) and also commonly simplified as Madīnah or Madinah (, ), is the Holiest sites in Islam, second-holiest city in Islam, ...
; his followers also desecrated the tombs of
Ali ibn Abi Talib ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar, عَلِيّ بْن أَبِي طَالِب; 600 – 661 CE) was the last of four Rightly Guided Caliphs to rule Islam (r. 656 – 661) immediately after the death of Muhammad, and he was the first Shia Imam. ...
,
Hassan ibn Ali Hasan ibn Ali ( ar, الحسن بن علي, translit=Al-Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī; ) was a prominent early Islamic figure. He was the eldest son of Ali and Fatima and a grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He briefly ruled as caliph from Ja ...
and
Husayn ibn Ali Abū ʿAbd Allāh al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar, أبو عبد الله الحسين بن علي بن أبي طالب; 10 January 626 – 10 October 680) was a grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a son of Ali ibn Abi ...
. Abdullah bin Saud and his two followers were publicly
beheaded Decapitation or beheading is the total separation of the head from the body. Such an injury is invariably fatal to humans and most other animals, since it deprives the brain of oxygenated blood, while all other organs are deprived of the ...
for their crimes against holy cities and mosques.


Greek War of Independence

His reign also marked the first breakaway from the Ottoman Empire, with Greece gaining its
independence Independence is a condition of a person, nation, country, or state in which residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory. The opposite of independence is the statu ...
following a
revolution In political science, a revolution (Latin: ''revolutio'', "a turn around") is a fundamental and relatively sudden change in political power and political organization which occurs when the population revolts against the government, typically due ...
that started in 1821. In the wake of continued unrest he had ecumenical patriarch
Gregory V Gregory may refer to: People and fictional characters * Gregory (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters with the given name * Gregory (surname), a surname Places Australia * Gregory, Queensland, a town in the Shire o ...
executed on Easter Sunday 1821 for his inability to stem the uprising. During the
Battle of Erzurum (1821) The Battle of Erzurum occurred in 1821 as part of the Ottoman-Persian War of 1821–1823. The Persians, led by crown prince Abbas Mirza himself defeated their Ottoman arch-rivals near Erzurum. The Persians were outnumbered with 30,000 men, led b ...
, part of the Ottoman-Persian War (1821-1823), Mahmud II's superior force was routed by
Abbas Mirza Abbas Mirza ( fa, عباس میرزا; August 26, 1789October 25, 1833) was a Qajar crown prince of Iran. He developed a reputation as a military commander during the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813 and the Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828, as ...
, resulting in a Qajar Persian victory which got confirmed in the
Treaties of Erzurum The Treaties of Erzurum were two treaties of 1823 and 1847 that settled boundary disputes between the Ottoman Empire and Persia. First Treaty Although the Treaty of Zuhab in 1639 had established the boundary between Ottoman Empire and Persia, t ...
. Several years later, in 1827, the combined British, French and Russian navies defeated the Ottoman Navy at the
Battle of Navarino The Battle of Navarino was a naval battle fought on 20 October (O. S. 8 October) 1827, during the Greek War of Independence (1821–29), in Navarino Bay (modern Pylos), on the west coast of the Peloponnese peninsula, in the Ionian Sea. Allied fo ...
; in the aftermath, the Ottoman Empire was forced to recognize Greece with the Treaty of Constantinople in July 1832. This event, together with the
French conquest of Algeria The French invasion of Algeria (; ) took place between 1830 and 1903. In 1827, an argument between Hussein Dey, the ruler of the Deylik of Algiers, and the French consul escalated into a blockade, following which the July Monarchy of France inva ...
, an Ottoman province (see
Ottoman Algeria The Regency of Algiers ( ar, دولة الجزائر, translit=Dawlat al-Jaza'ir) was a state in North Africa lasting from 1516 to 1830, until it was French conquest of Algeria, conquered by the French. Situated between the Ottoman Tunisia, re ...
) in 1830, marked the beginning of the gradual break-up of the Ottoman Empire. Non-Turkish ethnic groups living in the empire's territories, especially in Europe, started their own independence movements.


The Auspicious Incident

One of Mahmud II's most notable acts during his reign was the destruction of the
Janissary A Janissary ( ota, یڭیچری, yeŋiçeri, , ) was a member of the elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultan's household troops and the first modern standing army in Europe. The corps was most likely established under sultan Orhan ( ...
corps in June 1826. He accomplished this with careful calculation using his recently reformed wing of the military intended to replace the Janissaries. When the Janissaries mounted a demonstration against Mahmud II's proposed military reforms, he had their barracks fired upon effectively crushing the formerly elite Ottoman troops and burned the Belgrade forest outside Istanbul to incinerate any remnants. This permitted the establishment of a European-style conscript army, recruited mainly from Turkish speakers of Rumelia and Asia Minor. Mahmud was also responsible for the subjugation of the Iraqi Mamluks by
Ali Ridha Pasha ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar, عَلِيّ بْن أَبِي طَالِب; 600 – 661 CE) was the last of four Rightly Guided Caliphs to rule Islam (r. 656 – 661) immediately after the death of Muhammad, and he was the first Shia Imam. ...
in 1831. He ordered the execution of the renowned
Ali Pasha of Tepelena Ali Pasha of Ioannina (1740 – 24 January 1822), was an Albanian ruler who served as pasha of a large part of western Rumelia, the Ottoman Empire's European territories, which was referred to as the Pashalik of Yanina. His court was in Ioannina, ...
. He sent his
Grand Vizier Grand vizier ( fa, وزيرِ اعظم, vazîr-i aʾzam; ota, صدر اعظم, sadr-ı aʾzam; tr, sadrazam) was the title of the effective head of government of many sovereign states in the Islamic world. The office of Grand Vizier was first ...
to execute the
Bosniak The Bosniaks ( bs, Bošnjaci, Cyrillic: Бошњаци, ; , ) are a South Slavic ethnic group native to the Southeast European historical region of Bosnia, which is today part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, who share a common Bosnian ancestry, cu ...
military commander
Husein Gradaščević Husein Gradaščević (''Husein-kapetan'') (31 August 1802 – 17 August 1834) was a Bosnian military commander who later led a rebellion against the Ottoman government, seeking autonomy for Bosnia. Born into a Bosnian noble family, Gradašč ...
and dissolve the
Bosnia Eyalet The Eyalet of Bosnia ( ota, ایالت بوسنه ,Eyālet-i Bōsnâ; By Gábor Ágoston, Bruce Alan Masters ; sh, Bosanski pašaluk), was an eyalet (administrative division, also known as a ''beylerbeylik'') of the Ottoman Empire, mostly based o ...
.


Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29

Another
Russo-Turkish War (1828-29) The Russo-Turkish wars (or Ottoman–Russian wars) were a series of twelve wars fought between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 20th centuries. It was one of the longest series of military conflicts in History of Euro ...
broke out during Mahmud II's reign and was fought without janissaries. Marshal von Diebitsch was armed (in the words of Baron Moltke) "with the reputation of invincible success". He was to earn the name Sabalskanski (the crosser of the Balkans). Bypassing the Shumla fortress, he forcibly marched his troops over the Balkans, appearing before Adrianople. Sultan Mahmud II maintained control of his forces, unfurled the banner of the prophet and declared his intention of taking command of the army personally. Preparing to do so, he appeared, ill-advisedly, not on horseback but in a carriage. The Divan, British and French ambassadors urged him to sue for peace. File:January Suchodolski - Akhaltsikhe siege.jpg, Battle of Akhalzic (1828), by
January Suchodolski January Suchodolski (; September 19, 1797 – March 20, 1875) was a Polish painter and Army officer, and a member of the Imperial Academy of Arts. Life Suchodolski was born in Grodno and was the brother of Rajnold Suchodolski. He joined the ...
. Oil on canvas, 1839. File:Kars 1828.jpg, Russian forces reach and cause the Siege of
Kars Kars (; ku, Qers; ) is a city in northeast Turkey and the capital of Kars Province. Its population is 73,836 in 2011. Kars was in the ancient region known as ''Chorzene'', (in Greek Χορζηνή) in classical historiography ( Strabo), part of ...
(1828), by January Suchodolski.


Tanzimat reforms

In 1839, just prior to his death, he began preparations for the Tanzimat reform era which included introducing a
Council of Ministers A council is a group of people who come together to consult, deliberate, or make decisions. A council may function as a legislature, especially at a town, city or county/ shire level, but most legislative bodies at the state/provincial or nati ...
or the ''Meclis-i Vukela''. The Tanzimat marked the beginning of modernization in the Ottoman Empire and had immediate effects on social and legal aspects of life in the Empire, such as European style clothing, architecture, legislation, institutional organization, and land reform. He was also concerned for aspects of tradition. He made great efforts to revive the sport of archery. He ordered archery master Mustafa Kani to write a book about the history, construction, and use of
Turkish bow Turkish may refer to: *a Turkic language spoken by the Turks * of or about Turkey ** Turkish language *** Turkish alphabet ** Turkish people, a Turkic ethnic group and nation *** Turkish citizen, a citizen of Turkey *** Turkish communities and ...
s, from which comes most of what is now known of Turkish archery. Mahmud II died of
tuberculosis Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease usually caused by '' Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections show no symptoms, in ...
, in 1839. His funeral was attended by crowds of people who came to bid the Sultan farewell. His son
Abdulmejid I Abdulmejid I ( ota, عبد المجيد اول, ʿAbdü'l-Mecîd-i evvel, tr, I. Abdülmecid; 25 April 182325 June 1861) was the 31st Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and succeeded his father Mahmud II on 2 July 1839. His reign was notable for the r ...
succeeded him and would continue to implement Tanzimat reform efforts.


Reforms


Legal reforms

Among his reforms are the edicts (or
firman A firman ( fa, , translit=farmân; ), at the constitutional level, was a royal mandate or decree issued by a sovereign in an Islamic state. During various periods they were collected and applied as traditional bodies of law. The word firman com ...
s), by which he closed the Court of Confiscations, and took away much of the power of the
Pasha Pasha, Pacha or Paşa ( ota, پاشا; tr, paşa; sq, Pashë; ar, باشا), in older works sometimes anglicized as bashaw, was a higher rank in the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman political and military system, typically granted to governors, gener ...
s. Previous to the first of the firmans, the property of all persons banished or condemned to death was forfeited to the crown; and a sordid motive for acts of cruelty was thus kept in perpetual operation, besides the encouragement of a host of vile
delator Delator (plural: ''delatores'', feminine: ''delatrix'') is Latin for a denouncer, one who indicates to a court another as having committed a punishable deed. Secular Roman law In Roman history, it was properly one who gave notice (''deferre'') t ...
s. The second firman removed the ancient rights of Turkish governors to doom men to instant death by their will; the ''Paşas'', the ''Ağas'', and other officers, were enjoined that "they should not presume to inflict, themselves, the punishment of death on any man, whether Raya or Turk, unless authorized by a legal sentence pronounced by the Kadı, and regularly signed by the judge." Mahmud also created an appeal system whereby a criminal could lodge an appeal to one of the Kazasker (chief military judge) of Asia or Europe, and finally to the Sultan himself, if the criminal chose to pursue the appeal even further. About the same time that Mahmud II ordained these changes, he personally set an example of reform by regularly attending the Divan, or state council, instead of abstaining from attendance. The practice of the Sultan avoiding the Divan had been introduced as long ago as the reign of Suleiman I, and was considered one of the causes of the decline of the Empire by a Turkish historian nearly two centuries before Mahmud II's time. Mahmud II also addressed some of the worst abuses connected with the
vakıf A waqf ( ar, وَقْف; ), also known as hubous () or ''mortmain'' property is an inalienable charitable endowment under Islamic law. It typically involves donating a building, plot of land or other assets for Muslim religious or charitable ...
s, by placing their revenues under state administration. However, he did not venture to apply this vast mass of property to the general purposes of the government. His modernizations included the relaxation of much of the restrictions on
alcoholic beverage An alcoholic beverage (also called an alcoholic drink, adult beverage, or a drink) is a drink that contains ethanol, a type of alcohol that acts as a drug and is produced by fermentation of grains, fruits, or other sources of sugar. The c ...
s in the Empire, and the sultan himself was known to drink socially with his ministers. By the end of his reign, his reforms had mostly normalized drinking among the upper classes and political figures in the Empire. The financial situation of the Empire was troubling during his reign, and certain social classes had long been under the oppression of heavy taxes. In dealing with the complicated questions that therefore arose, Mahmud II is considered to have demonstrated the best spirit of the best of the Köprülüs. A firma dated February 22, 1834, abolished the vexatious charges which public functionaries, when traversing the provinces, had long been accustomed to take from the inhabitants. By the same edict, all collection of money, except for the two regular half-yearly periods, was denounced as abuses. "No one is ignorant," said Sultan Mahmud II in this document, "that I am bound to afford support to all my subjects against vexatious proceedings; to endeavour unceasingly to lighten, instead of increasing their burdens, and to ensure peace and tranquility. Therefore, those acts of oppression are at once contrary to the will of God, and to my imperial orders." The ''
haraç Haraç ( hy, խարջ, kharj, mk, арач, arač, gr, χαράτσι, charatsi, sh-Cyrl-Latn, харач, harač) was a land tax levied on non-Muslims in the Ottoman Empire. ''Haraç'' was developed from an earlier form of land taxation, '' ...
'', or capitation-tax, though moderate and exempting those who paid it from military service, had long been made an engine of gross tyranny through the insolence and misconduct of the government collectors. The firman of 1834 abolished the old mode of levying it and ordained that it should be raised by a commission composed of the ''Kadı'', the Muslim governors, and the ''Ayans'', or municipal chiefs of ''Rayas'' in each district. Many other financial improvements were affected. By another important series of measures, the administrative government was simplified and strengthened, and a large number of sinecure offices were abolished. Sultan Mahmud II provided a valuable personal example of good sense, and economy, organising the imperial household, suppressing all titles without duties, and all salaried officials without functions.


Military reforms

Mahmud II dealt effectively with the military fiefs, the " Tımar"s, and the "Ziamet"s. These had been instituted to furnish the old effective military force, but had long ceased to serve this purpose. By attaching them to the public domains, Mahmud II materially strengthened the resources of the state, and put an end to a host of corruptions. One of the most resolute acts of his ruling was the suppression of the ''Dere Beys'', the hereditary local chiefs (with power to nominate their successors in default of male heirs), which, in one of the worst abuses of the Ottoman feudal system, had made themselves petty princes in almost every province of the empire. The reduction of these insubordinate feudatories was not affected at once, or without severe struggles and frequent rebellions. Mahmud II steadily persevered in this great measure and ultimately the island of
Cyprus Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is geo ...
became the only part of the empire in which power that was not emanating from the Sultan was allowed to be retained by ''Dere Beys''. One of his most notable achievement was the abolition (through use of military force, execution and exile, and banning of the
Bektashi The Bektashi Order; sq, Tarikati Bektashi; tr, Bektaşi or Bektashism is an Islamic Sufi mystic movement originating in the 13th-century. It is named after the Anatolian saint Haji Bektash Wali (d. 1271). The community is currently led by ...
order) of the
Janissary A Janissary ( ota, یڭیچری, yeŋiçeri, , ) was a member of the elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultan's household troops and the first modern standing army in Europe. The corps was most likely established under sultan Orhan ( ...
Corps, event known as
The Auspicious Incident The Auspicious Incident (or EventGoodwin, pp. 296–299.) (Ottoman Turkish: ''Vaka-i Hayriye'', "Fortunate Event" in Constantinople; ''Vaka-i Şerriyye'', "Unfortunate Incident" in the Balkans) was the forced disbandment of the centuries-old Ja ...
, in 1826 and the establishment of a modern Ottoman Army, named the Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye (meaning 'Victorious Soldiers of Muhammad' in Ottoman Turkish). Following the loss of Greece after the
Battle of Navarino The Battle of Navarino was a naval battle fought on 20 October (O. S. 8 October) 1827, during the Greek War of Independence (1821–29), in Navarino Bay (modern Pylos), on the west coast of the Peloponnese peninsula, in the Ionian Sea. Allied fo ...
against the combined British-French-Russian flotilla in 1827, Mahmud II gave top priority to rebuilding a strong Ottoman naval force. The first steamships of the Ottoman Navy were acquired in 1828. In 1829 the world's largest warship for many years, the 201 x 56
kadem Kadem (also ) is a defunct measurement unit used in the Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē A ...
(1 kadem = 37.887 cm) or
ship of the line A ship of the line was a type of naval warship constructed during the Age of Sail from the 17th century to the mid-19th century. The ship of the line was designed for the naval tactic known as the line of battle, which depended on the two colu ...
''
Mahmudiye Mahmudiye is a town and district of Eskişehir Province in the Central Anatolia region of Turkey. According to 2010 census, population of the district is 8,770 of which 4,707 live in the town of Mahmudiye. The district covers an area of , and the ...
'', which had 128 cannons on 3 decks and carried 1,280 sailors on board, was built for the Ottoman Navy at the Imperial Naval Arsenal (
Tersâne-i Âmire The Imperial Arsenal ( ota, Tersâne-i Âmire) was the main base and naval shipyard of the Ottoman Empire from the 16th century to the end of the Empire. It was located on the Golden Horn in the Ottoman capital, Constantinople (modern Istanbul). ...
) on the
Golden Horn The Golden Horn ( tr, Altın Boynuz or ''Haliç''; grc, Χρυσόκερας, ''Chrysókeras''; la, Sinus Ceratinus) is a major urban waterway and the primary inlet of the Bosphorus in Istanbul, Turkey. As a natural estuary that connects with t ...
in
Constantinople la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه , alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
(
kadem Kadem (also ) is a defunct measurement unit used in the Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē A ...
, which translates as "foot", is often misinterpreted as equivalent in length to one imperial foot, hence the wrongly converted dimensions of "201 x 56 ft, or 62 x 17 m" in some sources.)


Other reforms

During his reign, Mahmud II also made sweeping reforms of the bureaucracy in order to reestablish royal authority and increase the administrative efficiency of his government. This was accomplished by abolishing old offices, introducing new lines of responsibility, and raised salaries in an attempt to end bribery. In 1838 he founded two institutions aimed towards training government officials. In 1831, Mahmud II also established an official gazette, ''Takvim-i Vekayi'' (Calendar of Events). This was the first newspaper to be published in the Ottoman-Turkish language and was required reading for all civil servants. Clothing was also an essential aspect of Mahmud II's reforms. He began by officially adopting the fez for the military after the Janissary eradication in 1826, which signified a break from the old style of military dress. On top of this, he ordered civilian officials to also adopt a similar, but plain, fez to distinguish them from the military. He planned for the population to adopt this as well, as he desired a homogeneous look for Ottoman society with an 1829 regulatory law. Unlike past Sultanic clothing decrees and those of other societies, Mahmud II wanted all levels of government and civilians to look the same. He faced significant resistance to these measures specifically from religious groups, laborers, and military members because of traditional, religious, and practical reasons. Mahmud II's portraits also give a valuable insight into his clothing mentality, as he switched to a more European-style and fez after 1826. On top of these reforms, Mahmud II was also critical in the establishment and flourishing of an Ottoman foreign affairs office. While he built upon Selim III's foundational elements of international diplomacy, Mahmud II was the first to create the title of Foreign Minister and Undersecretary in 1836. He placed enormous importance on this position and equated salary and rank with the highest military and civilian positions. Mahmud II also expanded the Language Office and Translation Office, and by 1833 it began to grow in both size and importance. After the reorganization of these offices, he also resumed Selim's efforts to create a system of permanent diplomatic representation in Europe. In 1834, permanent European embassies were established with the first being in Paris. Despite the difficulties that came along with these actions, the expansion of diplomacy increased the transmission of ideas that would have a revolutionary effect on the development of bureaucracy and Ottoman society as a whole.


Family


Consorts

Mahmud II had at least eightteen consorts:MS: Milli saraylar, tarih kültür sanat mimarlık, Issue 6 . TBMM Milli Saraylar Daire Başkanlığı Yayını. 2010. pag. 20. * Fatma Kadın (? - February 1809). BaşKadin (First Consort) for one year before her death. * Alicenab Kadın (? - before 1839). BaşKadin after Fatma's death. Mother of at least one son. * Hacıye Pertevpiyale Nevfidan Kadın (4 January 1793 - 27 December 1855). Mahmud's concubine already when he was a prince (conceived their first daughter, Fatma Sultan, born six months after her father's accession to the throne, in this period, thus violating the rules of the harem that forbade the princes to have children until the eventual ascent al tronk), became BaşKadin after Alicenab's death. She was the mother of at least one son and four daughters, and she also raised
Adile Sultan ota, عدیلہ سلطان , house = Ottoman , house-type = Dynasty , father = Mahmud II , mother = Zernigâr Kadın , birth_date = 23 May 1826 , birth_place = Constantinople, Ottoman Empire (present day Istanbul, Tu ...
when she was orphaned on 1830. Abdülmecid I of her allowed her to go on pilgrimage to
Mecca Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red ...
, which earned her the name "''Haciye"''. * Dilseza Kadın (? - 1816). Second Kadın. Mother of at least two sons. Buried in the mausoleum of the Dolmabahçe Palace. * Mislinayab Kadın (? - before 1825). Second Kadın. Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum. * Kameri Kadın (? - before 1825). Also called Kamerfer Kadın. Second Kadın. Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum. * Ebrirefar Kadın (? - before 1825). Also called Ebrureftar Kadın. Second Kadın. Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum. * Bezmialem Kadın (1807 - 2 May 1853). Called also Bazimialam Kadın. Georgian, she was educated by Esma Sultan, Mahmud II's sister, and, first to be a consort, she work in the hamam (freshroom) of her palace. Third Kadın and then Second Kadin from 1832. Mother and Valide Sultan of Abdülmecid I. * Aşubcan Kadin (1793 - 10 June 1870). Mother of at least three daughters. Quinta Kadın in 1811 and then Second. * Vuslat Kadın (? - May 1831). Third Kadın. * Zernigar Kadın (? - 1830). Of Armenian descent, her real name was Maryam. Educated by Esma Sultan, Mahmud II's half-sister. Mother of a daughter. Fourth Ikbal in 1826, then Seventh Kadın and finally Third Kadın. * Nurtab Kadın (1810 - 2 January 1886). Fourth Kadın. She was the adoptive mother of Şevkefza Sultan, mother of
Murad V Murad V ( ota, مراد خامس, translit=Murâd-ı ḫâmis; tr, V. Murad; 21 September 1840 – 29 August 1904) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire who reigned from 30 May to 31 August 1876. The son of Abdulmejid I, he supported the ...
. Buried in the Mahmud II mausoleum. * Hacıye Hoşyar Kadın (? - 1859, Mecca). Mother of two daughters. Third Kadın and then Second. Tall and blonde, she had been educated by
Beyhan Sultan Beyhan (also: ''Beyhanı'') is a town (''belde'') in Palu District, Elazığ Province Elazığ Province ( tr, ; Zazaki: Suke Xarpêt; ku, Parêzgeha Xarpêtê) is a province of Turkey with its seat in the city of Elazığ. The province had ...
, daughter of
Mustafa III Mustafa III (; ''Muṣṭafā-yi sālis''; 28 January 1717 – 21 January 1774) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1757 to 1774. He was a son of Sultan Ahmed III (1703–30), and his consort Mihrişah Kadın. He was succeeded by his ...
. * Pervizfekek Kadın (? - 21 September 1863). Mother of at least three daughters. She was Sixth Kadın in 1824. She was buried in Mahmud II mausoleum. * Pertevniyal Kadın (1812 - 5 February 1883). Mother of two sons, including Abdülaziz I. Second Ikbal and later Fifth Kadın. * Hüsnimelek Hanim (1807/1812 - October 1867). Also called Hüsnümelek Hanim. BaşIkbal (First Ikbal). She was educated by Esma Sultan, Mahmud II's sister. He saw her play at a banquet hosted by her sister and asked for it for himself. She of great musical talent, she composed a song for the sultan, entitled ''Hüsnümelek bir peridir/Cümlesinin dilberidir.'' She did not live in the harem but in a separate wing of the palace. After Mahmud's death she became a dance teacher in the harem of his heir and son Abdülmecid I. Buried in the Mahmud II mausoleum. * Tiryal Hanim (1810 - 1883). Third Ikbal. Perhaps the mother of a child, she loved Abdülaziz I as if he were his own son, and he too considered her a second mother, so much so that during his reign, he guaranteed her the same treatment as his own mother, making her live in the Beylerbeyi Palace and granting her wealth and prestige, and everyone considered Tiryal the second
Valide Sultan #REDIRECT Valide sultan {{redirect category shell, {{R from move{{R from miscapitalization{{R unprintworthy ...
. Tiriyal donated her villa in Çamlıca to Şehzade Yusuf Izzedin, Abdülaziz's eldest son, whom she considered her grandson. He built a glass pavilion and fountain in Çamlıca and a second fountain in Üsküdar. She took care of the education of
Dilpesend Kadın ota, دل پسند قادین , house = Ottoman (by marriage) , father = Kızılbeg Maksud Giray Bey , mother = Esma Hanım , birth_name = Azize Hanim , birth_date = 16 January 1865 , birth_place = Tiflis, Tiflis Go ...
, who became the consort of
Abdülhamid II Abdülhamid or Abdul Hamid II ( ota, عبد الحميد ثانی, Abd ül-Hamid-i Sani; tr, II. Abdülhamid; 21 September 1842 10 February 1918) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 31 August 1876 to 27 April 1909, and the last sultan to ...
, grandson of Mahmud II through his son
Abdülmecid I Abdulmejid I ( ota, عبد المجيد اول, ʿAbdü'l-Mecîd-i evvel, tr, I. Abdülmecid; 25 April 182325 June 1861) was the 31st Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and succeeded his father Mahmud II on 2 July 1839. His reign was notable for the r ...
. She was buried in the Yeni Cami, in front of the fountain built in her name. * Lebrizfelek Hanim (1810 - 9 February 1865). Fourth Ikbal. She died in the Dolmabahçe Palace and was buried in the courtyard of the Yeni Cami.


Sons

Mahmud had at least eighteen sons, of which only two lived to adulthood: * Şehzade Murad (25 December 1811 - 14 July 1812). Buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum. * Şehzade Bayezid (23 March 1812 - 25 June 1812) - with Dilseza Kadin. Buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum. * Şehzade Abdülhamid (6 March 1813 - 20 April 1825) - with Alicenab Kadın. Buried in the
mausoleum A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or people. A mausoleum without the person's remains is called a cenotaph. A mausoleum may be consid ...
Nakşidil Sultan ota, نقش دل سلطان , birth_name = , birth_date = 1761 , birth_place = Georgia , death_date = 28 July 1817 (aged 55-56) (Even though her date date was given as August 22nd 1817 in some sources, this information is incorrect, ...
. * Şehzade Osman (12 June 1813 - 10 April 1814) - with Nevfidan Kadin. Twin of Emine Sultan. Buried in the Nurosmaniye Mosque. * Şehzade Ahmed (25 July 1814 - 16 July 1815). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque. * Şehzade Mehmed (26 August 1814 - November 1814) - with Dilseza Kadin. Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque. * Şehzade Mehmed (4 August 1816 - August 1816). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque. * Şehzade Süleyman (29 August 1817 - 14 December 1819). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque. * Şehzade Ahmed (13 October 1819 - December 1819). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque. * Şehzade Ahmed (25 December 1819 - January 1820). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque. * Şehzade Abdüllah (1820 - 1820). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque. * Şehzade Mehmed (12 February 1822 - 23 October 1822). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque. * Şehzade Ahmed (6 July 1822 - 9 April 1823). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque. *
Abdülmecid I Abdulmejid I ( ota, عبد المجيد اول, ʿAbdü'l-Mecîd-i evvel, tr, I. Abdülmecid; 25 April 182325 June 1861) was the 31st Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and succeeded his father Mahmud II on 2 July 1839. His reign was notable for the r ...
(25 April 1823 - 25 June 1861) - with Bezmialem Kadın. 31st
Sultan Sultan (; ar, سلطان ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it ...
of the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
. He was the last sultan to born on Topkapi Palace, after the imperial palace became the Beşiktaş Palace. * Şehzade Ahmed (5 December 1823 - 1824). * Şehzade Abdülhamid (18 February 1827 - 1829). Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum. *
Abdulaziz Abdulaziz ( ota, عبد العزيز, ʿAbdü'l-ʿAzîz; tr, Abdülaziz; 8 February 18304 June 1876) was the 32nd List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and reigned from 25 June 1861 to 30 May 1876, when he was 187 ...
(18 February 1830 - 4 June 1876) - with Pertevniyal Kadin. 32nd Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. * Şehzade Nizameddin (29 December 1833 - March 1838) - with Pertevniyal Kadin or Tiriyal Hanim.


Daughters

Mahmud II had at least nineteen daughters, but only six survived infancy and only four reached the age of marriage:Ulçay 2011, p. 188-201 * Fatma Sultan (4 February 1809 - 5 August 1809) - with Nevfidan Kadin. Her birth, the first in the imperial dynasty after 19 years and just six months after her father's accession to the throne, caused scandal, as it meant she must have been conceived when Mahmud was still Şehzade and confined to Kafes, which was forbidden at the time. She died of smallpox and was buried in the Nurosmaniye Mosque. * Ayşe Sultan (5 July 1809 - February 1810) - with Aşubcan Kadin. Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque. * Fatma Sultan (30 April 1810 - 7 May 1825) - with Nevfidan Kadin. She died of smallpox and was buried in the
mausoleum A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or people. A mausoleum without the person's remains is called a cenotaph. A mausoleum may be consid ...
Nakşidil Sultan ota, نقش دل سلطان , birth_name = , birth_date = 1761 , birth_place = Georgia , death_date = 28 July 1817 (aged 55-56) (Even though her date date was given as August 22nd 1817 in some sources, this information is incorrect, ...
. * Saliha Sultan (16 June 1811 - 5 February 1843) - with Aşubcan Kadin. She married once and had two sons and a daughter. * Şah Sultan (22 May 1812 - September 1814) - with Aşubcan Kadin. Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque. * Mihrimah Sultan (10 June 1812 - 3 July 1838) - with Hoşyar Kadın. She married once and had a son. * Emine Sultan (12 June 1813 - July 1814) - with Nevfidan Kadin. Twin sister of Şehzade Osman. Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque. *
Atiye Sultan Atiye Sultan ( ota, عطیه سلطان; "''gift''"; 2 January 1824 – 11 August 1850) was an Ottoman princess, the daughter of Sultan Mahmud II and Pervizifelek Kadın. She was the half-sister of Sultans Abdulmejid I and Abdulaziz. Early li ...
(2 January 1824 - 11 August 1850) - with Pervizfelek Kadın. She married once and had two daughters. * Şah Sultan (14 October 1814 - 13 April 1817) - her mother was the Fourth Kadın. Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque. * Emine Sultan (7 January 1815 - 24 September 1816) - with Nevfidan Kadin. She died in Beylerbeyi Palace in a fire. She was buried in the Yahya Efendi mausoleum. * Zeynep Sultan (18 April 1815 - February 1816) - with Hoşyar Kadın. Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque. * Hamide Sultan (14 July 1817 - July 1817). * Cemile Sultan (1818 - 1818). * Hamide Sultan (4 July 1818 - 15 February 1818). Buried in the Nurosmaniye mosque. * Münire Sultan (16 October 1824 - 23 May 1825). She died of smallpox and was buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum. * Hatice Sultan (6 September 1825 - 19 December 1842) - Pervizfelek Kadın. She died in the Beşiktaş Palace. *
Adile Sultan ota, عدیلہ سلطان , house = Ottoman , house-type = Dynasty , father = Mahmud II , mother = Zernigâr Kadın , birth_date = 23 May 1826 , birth_place = Constantinople, Ottoman Empire (present day Istanbul, Tu ...
(23 May 1826 - 12 February 1899) - with Zernigar Kadın. After being orphaned on 1830, she was raised by Navfidan Kadın. She married once and had a son and three daughters. * Fatma Sultan (20 July 1828 - 2 February 1839) - with Pervizfelek Kadın. Buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum. * Hayriye Sultan (22 March 1831 - 15 February 1833). She was buried in the Nakşidil Sultan mausoleum.


In fiction

The 2006 historical
detective novel Detective fiction is a subgenre of crime fiction and mystery fiction in which an investigator or a detective—whether professional, amateur or retired—investigates a crime, often murder. The detective genre began around the same time as s ...
''
The Janissary Tree ''The Janissary Tree'' is a historical mystery novel set in Istanbul in 1836, written by Jason Goodwin. It is the first in the Yashim the Detective series, followed by ''The Snake Stone'', ''The Bellini Card'', ''An Evil Eye'' and ''The Baklav ...
'', by
Jason Goodwin Jason Goodwin (born 1964) is an English writer and historian. Biography Goodwin attended Sussex House School. He studied Byzantine history at Cambridge University. Following the success of ''The Gunpowder Gardens or, A Time For Tea: Travels in ...
, is set in 1836 Constantinople, with Mahmud II's modernising reforms (and conservative opposition to them) forming the background of the plot. The Sultan himself and his mother appear in several scenes. The 1989 film '' Intimate Power'', also known as ''The Favorite'', is adapted from a historical fiction novel by
Prince Michael of Greece Prince Michael of Greece and Denmark, (born 7 January 1939) is a Greek prince, historian, and author. He has written several historical books and biographies of Greek and other European figures, Montgomery-Massingberd, Hugh. " Burke’s Royal F ...
. It portrays a legend about
Aimée du Buc de Rivéry Aimée, often unaccented as Aimee, is a feminine given name of French origin, translated as "beloved". The masculine form is Aimé. The English equivalent is Amy. It is also occasionally a surname. It may refer to: Given name Aimée * Aimée ...
as a young captured French girl who, after spending years in an Ottoman harem, outlives two Sultans and protects Mahmud as his surrogate mother. Mahmud is a minor role in the film but is portrayed as both an adult and a child. The film concludes with a variation of his dramatic succession.


See also

* Atçalı Kel Mehmet Efe * Sened-i İttifak


References

* Incorporates text from
Edward Shepherd Creasy Sir Edward Shepherd Creasy (12 September 1812 – 17 January 1878) was an English historian and jurist. Life He was born the son of a Land Agent in Bexley, Kent, England and educated at Eton College (where he won the Newcastle Scholarship in ...
, ''History of the Ottoman Turks; From the beginning of their empire to the present time'' (1878).


Bibliography

* *


Further reading

* Levy, Avigdor. "The Officer Corps in Sultan Mahmud II's New Ottoman Army, 1826–39." ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'' (1971) 2#1 pp: 21–39
online
* Levy, Avigdor. "The Ottoman Ulema and the military reforms of Sultan Mahmud II." ''Asian and African Studies'' 7 (1971): 13–39. * Levy, Avigdor. "The Ottoman Corps in Sultan Mahmud II New Ottoman Army." ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'' 1 (1971): pp 39+ * Palmer, Alan. ''The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire'' (1992) ch 6 *


External links

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mahmud 2 1785 births 1839 deaths Royalty from Istanbul Ottoman people of the Ottoman–Persian Wars Ottoman people of the Wahhabi War Ottoman people of the Greek War of Independence Ottoman people of the Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833) Ottoman people of the Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–1841) 19th-century deaths from tuberculosis Tuberculosis deaths in the Ottoman Empire 19th-century Ottoman sultans Turks from the Ottoman Empire Leaders who took power by coup The Sultan of Two Lands and the Khan of Two Seas