Macropsia is a neurological condition affecting human visual perception, in which objects within an affected section of the visual field appear larger than normal, causing the person to feel smaller than they actually are. Macropsia, along with its opposite condition,

micropsia Micropsia is a condition affecting human visual perception in which objects are perceived to be smaller than they actually are. Micropsia can be caused by optical factors (such as wearing glasses), by distortion of images in the eye (such as optica ...

, can be categorized under

dysmetropsia Alice in Wonderland syndrome (AIWS), also known as Todd's syndrome or dysmetropsia, is a neuropsychological condition that causes a distortion of perception. People may experience distortions in visual perception of objects, such as appearing sma ...

. Macropsia is related to other conditions dealing with

visual perception Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment through photopic vision (daytime vision), color vision, scotopic vision (night vision), and mesopic vision (twilight vision), using light in the visible spectrum reflecte ...

, such as

aniseikonia Aniseikonia is an ocular condition where there is a significant difference in the perceived size of images. It can occur as an overall difference between the two eyes, or as a difference in a particular meridian. If the ocular image size in both e ...

and Alice in Wonderland Syndrome ( AIWS, also known as Todd's syndrome). Macropsia has a wide range of causes, from prescription and illicit drugs, to migraines and (rarely) complex partial epilepsy, and to different retinal conditions, such as

epiretinal membrane Epiretinal membrane or macular pucker is a disease of the eye in response to changes in the vitreous humor or more rarely, diabetes. Sometimes, as a result of immune system response to protect the retina, cells converge in the macular area as t ...

. Physiologically, retinal macropsia results from the compression of cones in the eye. It is the compression of receptor distribution that results in greater stimulation and thus a larger perceived image of an object.

Signs and symptoms

The most obvious

symptom Signs and symptoms are the observed or detectable signs, and experienced symptoms of an illness, injury, or condition. A sign for example may be a higher or lower temperature than normal, raised or lowered blood pressure or an abnormality showin ...

of macropsia is the presence of exceptionally enlarged objects throughout the visual field. For example, a young girl might see her sister's books as the same size as her sister. Stemming from this

, someone with macropsia may feel undersized in relation to his or her surrounding environment. Patients with macropsia have also noted the cessation of auditory function prior to the onset of visual

hallucination A hallucination is a perception in the absence of an external stimulus that has the qualities of a real perception. Hallucinations are vivid, substantial, and are perceived to be located in external objective space. Hallucination is a combinatio ...

, indicating possible

seizure An epileptic seizure, informally known as a seizure, is a period of symptoms due to abnormally excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain. Outward effects vary from uncontrolled shaking movements involving much of the body with los ...

either before or after the hallucination. A buzzing sound in the ears has also been reported immediately before macropsia development. Some patients claim that symptoms may be eased if an attempt is made to physically touch the object which appears enormous in size.Macropsia. Schneck JM. Am J Psychiatry 121:1123-1124, May 1965 It is important to note, however, that patients typically remain lucid and alert throughout episodes, being able to recount specific details. A person with macropsia may have no psychiatric conditions. Symptoms caused chemically by drugs such as

cannabis ''Cannabis'' () is a genus of flowering plants in the family Cannabaceae. The number of species within the genus is disputed. Three species may be recognized: ''Cannabis sativa'', '' C. indica'', and '' C. ruderalis''. Alternatively ...

magic mushrooms Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms, are a polyphyletic informal group of fungi that contain psilocybin which turns into psilocin upon ingestion. Biological genera containing psilocybin mushrooms include ''Psilocybe'', ''Pa ...

, or

cocaine Cocaine (from , from , ultimately from Quechuan languages, Quechua: ''kúka'') is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant mainly recreational drug use, used recreationally for its euphoria, euphoric effects. It is primarily obtained from t ...

tend to dissipate after the chemical compound has been excreted from the body. Those who acquire macropsia as a symptom of a

virus A virus is a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of an organism. Viruses infect all life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms, including bacteria and archaea. Since Dmitri Ivanovsky's 1 ...

usually experience complete recovery and restoration of normal

vision Vision, Visions, or The Vision may refer to: Perception Optical perception * Visual perception, the sense of sight * Visual system, the physical mechanism of eyesight * Computer vision, a field dealing with how computers can be made to gain un ...

Dysmetropsia Alice in Wonderland syndrome (AIWS), also known as Todd's syndrome or dysmetropsia, is a neuropsychological condition that causes a distortion of perception. People may experience distortions in visual perception of objects, such as appearing sma ...

in one eye, a case of aniseikonia, can present with symptoms such as

headaches Headache is the symptom of pain in the face, head, or neck. It can occur as a migraine, tension-type headache, or cluster headache. There is an increased risk of depression in those with severe headaches. Headaches can occur as a result of m ...

asthenopia Eye strain, also known as asthenopia (from Greek ''a-sthen-opia'', grc, ἀσθενωπία, ), is a common eye condition that manifests through non-specific symptoms such as fatigue, pain in or around the eyes, blurred vision, headache, an ...

, reading difficulties,

depth perception Depth perception is the ability to perceive distance to objects in the world using the visual system and visual perception. It is a major factor in perceiving the world in three dimensions. Depth perception happens primarily due to stereopsis an ...

problems, or

double vision Diplopia is the simultaneous perception of two images of a single object that may be displaced horizontally or vertically in relation to each other. Also called double vision, it is a loss of visual focus under regular conditions, and is often v ...

. The visual distortion can cause uncorrelated images to stimulate corresponding retinal regions simultaneously impairing fusion of the images. Without suppression of one of the images symptoms from mild poor

stereopsis Stereopsis () is the component of depth perception retrieved through binocular vision. Stereopsis is not the only contributor to depth perception, but it is a major one. Binocular vision happens because each eye receives a different image becaus ...

, binocular

diplopia Diplopia is the simultaneous perception of two images of a single object that may be displaced horizontally or vertically in relation to each other. Also called double vision, it is a loss of visual focus under regular conditions, and is often v ...

and intolerable rivalry can occur.

Psychological effects

There are a broad range of psychological and emotional effects that a person with macropsia may experience. One competing theory has radically stated that macropsia may be an entirely

psychological Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries between t ...

pathological Pathology is the study of the causal, causes and effects of disease or injury. The word ''pathology'' also refers to the study of disease in general, incorporating a wide range of biology research fields and medical practices. However, when us ...

phenomenon without any structural defect or definite cause. They may be in an irritable or angry state, or in contrast, a

euphoric Euphoria ( ) is the experience (or affect) of pleasure or excitement and intense feelings of well-being and happiness. Certain natural rewards and social activities, such as aerobic exercise, laughter, listening to or making music and da ...

state. There is evidence that those who experience

Alice in Wonderland Syndrome Alice in Wonderland syndrome (AIWS), also known as Todd's syndrome or dysmetropsia, is a neuropsychological condition that causes a distortion of perception. People may experience distortions in visual perception of objects, such as appearing sma ...

and associated macropsia are able to recount their experiences with thorough detail. There may be no evidence of

psychiatric Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders. These include various maladaptations related to mood, behaviour, cognition, and perceptions. See glossary of psychiatry. Initial psy ...

disturbance and, as a result, no psychiatric therapy may be required. Psychological conditions often arise from macropsia, but the general consensus is that they do not cause macropsia. Those affected may experience extreme

anxiety Anxiety is an emotion which is characterized by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil and includes feelings of dread over anticipated events. Anxiety is different than fear in that the former is defined as the anticipation of a future threat wh ...

both during and after episodes as a result of the overwhelming nature of his or her distorted visual field. Due to the fear and anxiety associated with the condition, those who have previously had an episode hesitate to recount the episode, although retain the ability to do so. Psychologically, a person with macropsia may feel separation and dissociation from the outside world and even from immediate family. This feeling of dissociation has mostly been noted in child or adolescent patients. The patient may feel that he or she must unfairly contend with hostile and aggressive forces due to the gigantic nature of the surrounding environment. The defense against said forces is usually expressed verbally. The patient may falsely present an outgoing or flamboyant persona, while remaining fearful of people internally. He or she, in an attempt to balance the size distortion, may try to make others feel small in size through insult or hostile behavior. The psychological impact of macropsia on long-time people who have had the condition since childhood may be greater and lead to severe ego-deficiencies. An alternative interpretation of the condition is that macropsia is a response to biophysiological contraction and has no psychological roots. Thus, when a patient reaches for an enlarged object, he or she is overcoming that physiological contraction.Raphael, C.M. Macropsia. 122 (1): 110 Am J Psychiatry However, this theory has been under much scrutiny.

Causes

Structural defects

In cases where macropsia affects one eye resulting in differences in the way the two eyes perceive the size or shape of images, the condition is known as aniseikonia.de Wit GC, Muraki CS. Field-dependent aniseikonia associated with an epiretinal membrane a case study. Ophthalmology 2006; 113:58-62. Aniseikonia is known to be associated with certain

retina The retina (from la, rete "net") is the innermost, light-sensitive layer of tissue of the eye of most vertebrates and some molluscs. The optics of the eye create a focused two-dimensional image of the visual world on the retina, which then ...

l conditions.

Epiretinal membrane Epiretinal membrane or macular pucker is a disease of the eye in response to changes in the vitreous humor or more rarely, diabetes. Sometimes, as a result of immune system response to protect the retina, cells converge in the macular area as t ...

has been found to cause metamorphopsia and aniseikonia.Benegas NM, Egbert J, Engel WK, Kushner BJ. Diplopia secondary to aniseikonia associated with macular disease. Arch Ophthalmol. 1999; 117:896-899. Vitreomacular traction caused by the excessive adhesion of vitreous fluid to the

is related to aniseikonia due to the separation and compression of

photoreceptor cells A photoreceptor cell is a specialized type of neuroepithelial cell found in the retina that is capable of visual phototransduction. The great biological importance of photoreceptors is that they convert light (visible electromagnetic radiatio ...

Macular edema Macular edema occurs when fluid and protein deposits collect on or under the macula of the eye (a yellow central area of the retina) and causes it to thicken and swell ( edema). The swelling may distort a person's central vision, because the macu ...

and surgical re-attachment for macula-off rhegmatogenous retinal detachment can also cause an increased separation of macular

resulting in

. Retinoschisis is another eye disease that has been shown to cause aniseikonia.de Wit G.C. Retinally-induced aniseikonia. Binocul Vis Strabismus Q. 2007; 22:96-101. There is evidence that a lesion appearing in the posterior area of the ventral occipitotemporal visual pathway can cause macropsia. This lesion can be due to an ischemic cell death after an acute posterior cerebral infarction.

Medications

The most prevalent research on prescription drugs with side effects of macropsia deals with

zolpidem Zolpidem, sold under the brand name Ambien, among others, is a medication primarily used for the short-term treatment of sleeping problems. Guidelines recommend that it be used only after cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia and behaviora ...

and

citalopram Citalopram, sold under the brand name Celexa among others, is an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class. It is used to treat major depressive disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, panic disorder, and socia ...

. Zolpidem is a drug prescribed for insomnia, and although it has proven beneficial effects, there have been numerous reported cases of adverse perceptual reactions.Hoyler CL, Tekell JL, Silva JA. Zolpidem-induced agitation and disorganization. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1996; 18:452–453. One of these cases discusses an anorexic woman's episode of macropsia, which occurred twenty minutes after taking 10 mg zolpidem. The same woman later had two more episodes of zolpidem-induced macropsia, after taking 5 mg and 2.5 mg zolpidem, respective to each episode. The intensity of the macropsia episodes decreased with the decreasing amount of zolpidem administered; it is implied in the article that the level of intensity was based on the patients accounts of her macropsia episodes, and that no external diagnosis was used.Iruela LM, Ibanez-Rojo V, Baca E. Zolpidem-induced macropsia in anorexic woman. Lancet 1993; 342(8868): 443-444. Hoyler points out notable similarities among the different reported cases of zolpidem-induced disorganization. The similarities were that all the cases were reported by women, the disorganization and agitation followed the first administration of zolpidem, and once zolpidem was discontinued, there were no lasting residual effects. It is believed that zolpidem-related macropsia is more prevalent in women because plasma zolpidem concentration is 40% higher in women, a concentration that further increases in anorexic women. Citalopram-induced macropsia is similar to zolpidem-induced macropsia since both types have been observed in relatively few cases, and neither of the drugs' side effects can be supported by experimental evidence. Citalopram is an antidepressant that inhibits serotonin reuptake. The first case of macropsia thought to be induced by citalopram involves a woman who experienced macropsia after her first administration of 10 mg citalopram. Just as with zolpidem, after the immediate discontinuation of citalopram, there were no further episodes of macropsia.

Illicit drugs

There are suggestions that visual distortions, such as macropsia, can be associated with cocaine use. Episodes of temporary drug-induced macropsia subside as the chemicals leave the body.

Migraine

Past research has linked macropsia to

migraine Migraine (, ) is a common neurological disorder characterized by recurrent headaches. Typically, the associated headache affects one side of the head, is pulsating in nature, may be moderate to severe in intensity, and could last from a few hou ...

. One of these studies was conducted on Japanese adolescents who reported visual episodic illusions with macropsia and showed that illusions are three times more likely to occur in association with migraine. The illusions were most prevalent among girls between the ages of 16 and 18. It is unlikely that macropsia in Japanese adolescents could be due to epileptic seizure since only 0.3% of Japanese adolescents have epilepsy. No evidence of drugs was found, which eliminates the possibility of the macropsia in the adolescents being drug-induced. It is also unlikely for macropsia in adolescent children to be associated with a serious disease. It is usually the macropsia or other visual disturbance which precedes the painful migrainous headaches. The episodes of macropsia can occur as part of the aura in a

. These episodes are often brief, lasting only a few minutes. Adolescents who are deemed to have multiple distortions per episode, such as slow motion vision and macropsia, are even more likely to be people with migraine. The macropsia episodes associated with migraine are typically equivalent to the duration of the aura, which can range from moments to 15 minutes. Non-migrainous headaches are not known to be associated with episodic illusions. Even in the absence of a migraine, a fever or a hypnogogic state can provoke visual illusions, which one might claim to be macropsia. A person with macropsia may fail to see the connection between the

and the macropsia, since the conditions may not elicit symptoms at the same time. The

pathophysiology Pathophysiology ( physiopathology) – a convergence of pathology with physiology – is the study of the disordered physiological processes that cause, result from, or are otherwise associated with a disease or injury. Pathology is the ...

of the condition is not fully understood, but the timing of some episodic occurrences with the headaches suggests that there is a connection between macropsia and the

vasoconstrictive Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of the blood vessels resulting from contraction of the muscular wall of the vessels, in particular the large arteries and small arterioles. The process is the opposite of vasodilation, the widening of blood vessel ...

phase of a

.Golden, Gerald S. The Alice in Wonderland Syndrome in Juvenile Migraine. Pediatrics 1979;63;517-519 The differences in visual phenomena, such as macropsia with slow motion versus macropsia without slow motion, may result from different areas of the brain being affected by

Epilepsy

Macropsia may present itself as a symptom of both

frontal lobe epilepsy Frontal lobe epilepsy (FLE) is a neurological disorder which is a subtype of the larger group of epilepsy and then focal epilepsy is characterized by brief, recurring seizures that arise in the frontal lobes of the brain, often while the patient is ...

and

temporal lobe epilepsy Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is a chronic disorder of the nervous system which is characterized by recurrent, unprovoked focal seizures that originate in the temporal lobe of the brain and last about one or two minutes. TLE is the most common f ...

, which may actually help in the diagnosis of those diseases. Children who experience nocturnal hallucinations accompanied by macropsia may seek medical care for panic attack disorders and instead are diagnosed with forms of epilepsy. Epilepsy patients may have no memory of the seizure, but can remember the hallucinations and aura which proceed the attack.

Electroencephalography Electroencephalography (EEG) is a method to record an electrogram of the spontaneous electrical activity of the brain. The biosignals detected by EEG have been shown to represent the postsynaptic potentials of pyramidal neurons in the neocortex ...

, or EEG imaging, can then be utilized while the patient experiences the episode. It may be subsequently concluded that the EEG is congruent with temporal or frontal lobe seizure. Anxiety and headaches accompany the episodes of visual distortion associated with epilepsy. While

Valproic acid Valproate (VPA) and its valproic acid, sodium valproate, and valproate semisodium forms are medications primarily used to treat epilepsy and bipolar disorder and prevent migraine headaches. They are useful for the prevention of seizures in those ...

has been used to treat this type of seizure,Zwijnenburg PJ, Wennink JM, Laman DM, Linssen WH. Alice in Wonderland syndrome: a clinical presentation of frontal lobe epilepsy. Neuropediatrics, 2002 33: 53-5. anti-seizure medications appropriate for focal-onset seizures, like oxcarbazapine, have also been used successfully in the treatment of epilepsy-related macropsia.

Hypoglycaemia

Endogenous

hypoglycaemia Hypoglycemia, also called low blood sugar, is a fall in blood sugar to levels below normal, typically below 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L). Whipple's triad is used to properly identify hypoglycemic episodes. It is defined as blood glucose bel ...

can result in number of visual disturbances and sometimes macropsia. This kind of hypoglycaemia is defined as having an abnormally low blood-sugar level due to anything other than the exogenous administration of

insulin Insulin (, from Latin ''insula'', 'island') is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets encoded in humans by the ''INS'' gene. It is considered to be the main anabolic hormone of the body. It regulates the metabolism o ...

. Macropsia has been observed in experimental hypoglycaemia and in patients receiving insulin therapy.

Viruses

Patients with both Epstein-Barr virus and

infectious mononucleosis Infectious mononucleosis (IM, mono), also known as glandular fever, is an infection usually caused by the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV). Most people are infected by the virus as children, when the disease produces few or no symptoms. In young adult ...

have cited an increase in the sizes of perceived objects, coinciding with other symptoms of Alice in Wonderland Syndrome. Additionally, it has been observed that Epstein-Barr patients who cite hallucinations display abnormal MRI scans. The

MRI Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body. MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields, magnetic field gradients, and radio waves ...

may show swelling of the cerebral cortex, transient T2 prolongation, and transient lesions. Unlike in MRI's, no abnormalities have been reported in CT scans. It is thus recommended that an Epstein-Barr patient who cites visual hallucinations have an MRI scan. Macropsia may appear either before the onset, or after the resolution, of all clinical symptoms associated with the illness.Lahat E, et al. Alice in Wonderland syndrome and infectious mononucleosis in children. J Neur Neurosur Psych 1990; 53:1104 The duration of the disturbances have been shown to range between two weeks and seven months. Almost all patients with macropsia due to infectious mononucleosis make full recoveries. Patients with Coxsackievirus B1 have reported numerous symptoms of Alice in Wonderland Syndrome, the most common of which being macropsia and micropsia.

Pathophysiology

Macropsia may be a result of optical

magnification Magnification is the process of enlarging the apparent size, not physical size, of something. This enlargement is quantified by a calculated number also called "magnification". When this number is less than one, it refers to a reduction in siz ...

differences between the eyes, retinal receptor distribution, or the cortical processing of the sampled image. The current hypothesis for the occurrence of

is due to the stretching or compression of the

leading to the displacement of receptors. Macropsia arises from a compressed receptor distribution leading to a larger perceived image size and conversely,

results from stretching of the

leading to a more sparse receptor distribution that gives a smaller perceived image size. In the case of macropsia, the greater density of

leads to greater stimulation making the object seem larger.Ugarte M, Williamson TH. Horizontal and vertical micropsia following macula-off rhegmatogenous retinal-detachment surgical repair. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2006; 244:1545-1548. In some cases, the effects of macropsia have been shown to be field dependent, in that the degree of visual distortion is related to the visual field angle. Non-uniform stretching or compression of the receptor distribution could explain the field dependency of the macropsia. If the compression forces were closer to the fovea the resulting compression would cause a greater amount of macropsia at lower field angles with little effect at higher field angles where the receptor distribution is not as compressed. Alterations in receptor distribution can be the result of

, neuroretina detachment and/or re-attachment, or retinoschisis. Macropsia caused by surgical re-attachment of macula-off rhegmatogenous

retinal detachment Retinal detachment is a disorder of the eye in which the retina peels away from its underlying layer of support tissue. Initial detachment may be localized, but without rapid treatment the entire retina may detach, leading to vision loss and blin ...

is not symmetrical around the

fovea Fovea () (Latin for "pit"; plural foveae ) is a term in anatomy. It refers to a pit or depression in a structure. Human anatomy *Fovea centralis of the retina * Fovea buccalis or Dimple * Fovea of the femoral head * Trochlear fovea of the fr ...

, resulting in differences size changes in the horizontal and vertical meridians. Asymmetry has also been observed with retinoschisis, in which macropsia generally results in the vertical direction while micropsia presents in the horizontal direction.

Diagnosis

Macropsia is generally diagnosed once a patient complains of the characteristic symptoms, such as disproportionally large objects in their visual field. The

Amsler Grid The Amsler grid, used since 1945, is a grid of horizontal and vertical lines used to monitor a person's central visual field. The grid was developed by Marc Amsler, a Swiss people, Swiss ophthalmologist. It is a diagnostic tool that aids in the ...

test can be used to diagnose macropsia, along with other visual maladies depending on the subjective disturbance reported by the patient after looking at the Amsler Grid. Outward bulging of the lines on an Amsler Grid is consistent with patients experiencing macropsisa.Riley, H. D. (2005). Amsler grid testing. Indiana University School of Optometry. The New Aniseikonia Test (NAT) can quantify the degree of macropsia or

independently in the vertical and horizontal meridians. The test consists of red and green semicircles on a black background with a white round fixation target. The size of the red semicircle is held constant while the green semicircle is varied in size in 1% increments. The patient wears a pair of red/green goggles so that one eye is tested at a time, and the patient attempts to determine when the semicircles are the same size. This is termed the reversal threshold and the size difference between the semicircles is reported as the degree of aniseikonia. A positive value indicates that the object was perceived bigger and thus corresponds to macropsia, and conversely a negative value indicates micropsia. The Aniseikonia Inspector contains an aniseikonia test based on the same principles as the NAT, but the test is run on a computer screen, it is based on a forced choice method, and it can measure the size difference as a function of the size of the objects. The functionality of being able to measure the size difference as function of the size (i.e. field dependent testing) is especially important when the macropsia (or micropsia) has a retinal origin.

Treatment

The most common way to treat forms of aniseikonia, including macropsia, is through the use of auxiliary optics to correct for the

properties of the

eyes Eyes are organs of the visual system. They provide living organisms with vision, the ability to receive and process visual detail, as well as enabling several photo response functions that are independent of vision. Eyes detect light and conve ...

. This method includes changing the shape of spectacle lenses, changing the vertex distances with contact lenses, creating a weak

telescope A telescope is a device used to observe distant objects by their emission, absorption, or reflection of electromagnetic radiation. Originally meaning only an optical instrument using lenses, curved mirrors, or a combination of both to observe ...

system with

contact lenses Contact lenses, or simply contacts, are thin lenses placed directly on the surface of the eyes. Contact lenses are ocular prosthetic devices used by over 150 million people worldwide, and they can be worn to correct vision or for cosmetic ...

and

spectacles Glasses, also known as eyeglasses or spectacles, are vision eyewear, with lenses (clear or tinted) mounted in a frame that holds them in front of a person's eyes, typically utilizing a bridge over the nose and hinged arms (known as temples o ...

, and changing the power of one of the spectacle lenses. Computer software, such as the Aniseikonia Inspector, has been developed to determine the prescription needed to correct for a certain degree of aniseikonia. The problem with correction through optical means is that the optics do not vary with field angle and thus cannot compensate for non-uniform macropsia. Patients have reported significantly improved visual comfort associated with a correction of 5-10% of the aniseikonia. With regard to drug-induced or virus-induced macropsia, once the underlying problem, either drug abuse or viral infection, is treated, the induced macropsia ceases.

Research

Future research may focus on ways to limit the occurrence of retinally-induced macropsia due to surgery. In terms of treatment, the most effective optical correction is still being researched with respect to visual field angles and direction to a target. The susceptibility of certain age demographics to macropsia is a subject that requires further validation.K. Abe, N. Oda, R. Araki, et al. Macropsia, micropsia, and episodic illusions in Japanese adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Childhood and Adolescent Psychiatry 1989; 28:493–496. Overall, there have not been very many reports of macropsia induced by certain drugs, specifically zolpidem and citalopram. Once a larger effort is made to compile such reports, there will inevitably be more research on the subject of macropsia.

References

External links

{{Optical illusions Neurological disorders Optical illusions Symptoms