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School of the Heart, or Yangmingism, known in Mandarin as (), lit. 'heart study' and in Japanese as (), is one of the major philosophical schools of
Neo-Confucianism Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, and originated with Han Yu (768–824) and Li Ao (772–841) in t ...
, based on the ideas of the idealist Neo-Confucian philosopher Wang Shouren (whose pseudonym was Yangming Zi and thus is often referred as
Wang Yangming Wang Shouren (, 26 October 1472 – 9 January 1529), courtesy name Bo'an (), art name Yangmingzi (), usually referred to as Wang Yangming (), was a Chinese calligrapher, general, philosopher, politician, and writer during the Ming dynasty ...
). Throughout the whole
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty (), officially the Great Yuan (; xng, , , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was established by Kublai, the fift ...
, as well as in the beginning of the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last orthodox dynasty of China ruled by the Han peo ...
, the magistral philosophy in China was the Rationalistic School, another
Neo-Confucianism Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, and originated with Han Yu (768–824) and Li Ao (772–841) in t ...
school emphasizing the importance of observational science built by Cheng Yi and especially
Zhu Xi Zhu Xi (; ; October 18, 1130 – April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi, was a Chinese calligrapher, historian, philosopher, poet, and politician during the Song dynasty. Zhu was influential in the development of Neo-Confucianism. He con ...
. Wang Yangming, on the other hand, developed his philosophy as the main intellectual opposition to the Cheng-Zhu School. Yangmingism is considered to be part of the School of Mind established by
Lu Jiuyuan Lu Jiuyuan (; 1139–1192), or Lu Xiangshan (陸象山; Lù Xiàngshān), was a Chinese philosopher and writer who founded the school of the universal mind, the second most influential Neo-Confucian school. He was a contemporary and the main ri ...
, upon whom Yangming drew inspirations. Yangming argued that one can learn the supreme principle (理, pinyin: Li) from their minds, objecting to Cheng and Zhu's belief that one can only seek the supreme principle in the objective world. Furthermore, Yangmingism posits a oneness of action and knowledge in relation to one's concepts of morality. This idea, "regard the inner knowledge and the exterior action as one", or "" in Chinese, is the main tenet in Yangmingism. Yangming's philosophy was inherited and spread by his disciples. Eventually, Yangmingism took the dominating place of Cheng-Zhu School and started to have followers outside China. Yangmingism became an influence on the incipient anti-foreigner movement in 19th century Japan. In the 20th century, Japanese author and nationalist
Yukio Mishima , born , was a Japanese author, poet, playwright, actor, model, Shintoist, nationalist, and founder of the , an unarmed civilian militia. Mishima is considered one of the most important Japanese authors of the 20th century. He was considered fo ...
examined Yangmingism as an integral part of the ideologies behind the
Meiji Restoration The , referred to at the time as the , and also known as the Meiji Renovation, Revolution, Regeneration, Reform, or Renewal, was a political event that restored practical imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Although there were ...
as well as further samurai resistance, in particular the Shinpūren rebellion.


Origins

In 1472, Yangming was born in a rich household in
Yuyao Yuyao () is a county-level city in the northeast of Zhejiang province, China. It is under the jurisdiction of the sub-provincial city of Ningbo. It is located west of central Ningbo, east of Hangzhou, bordering Hangzhou Bay in the north. Yuyao ...
,
Zhejiang Zhejiang ( or , ; , Chinese postal romanization, also romanized as Chekiang) is an East China, eastern, coastal Provinces of China, province of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Hangzhou, and other notable citie ...
. Yangming's father ranked first place in the
imperial examination The imperial examination (; lit. "subject recommendation") refers to a civil-service examination system in Imperial China, administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureaucrats by ...
in 1481, thus he had been expecting his children to inherit his knowledge and start their career by participating in the imperial examination. When Yangming was 12 years old, Yangming's father sent him to a private school to prepare for the exam. At the age of eighteen, Yangming had a talk with , who was one of the representative figures of Cheng-Zhu School at that time. Lou's teachings had significantly enhanced Yangming's interest in Cheng-Zhu School. After their conversations, Yangming managed to read through all of Zhu’s work, reflecting on Cheng-Zhu School’s principle that “to acquire knowledge one must study things” ( 格物致知). To practice this principle, Yangming spent seven days doing nothing except staring at, or so to say, studying the bamboos planted in the garden. Not surprisingly, not only did he not learn anything from the bamboos, but Yangming also fell seriously ill after sitting in the garden for seven days. Therefore, Yangming had given up on most of the Cheng-Zhu literature, as well as the idea of taking the imperial examination. Instead, he began to read texts written by other Chinese philosophers, and eventually narrowed his focus on
Taoism Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' Ta ...
and
Lu Jiuyuan Lu Jiuyuan (; 1139–1192), or Lu Xiangshan (陸象山; Lù Xiàngshān), was a Chinese philosopher and writer who founded the school of the universal mind, the second most influential Neo-Confucian school. He was a contemporary and the main ri ...
, whose work had been a major opponent to the Cheng-Zhu's Rationalistic School. Though Yangming had lost his faith in the imperial examination, he still signed up for the exam for the sake of his father. He passed the exam and was later assigned to work in the construction department in the central government. In 1506, Yangming was caught in political conflicts, and soon was demoted to
Guizhou Guizhou (; formerly Kweichow) is a landlocked province in the southwest region of the People's Republic of China. Its capital and largest city is Guiyang, in the center of the province. Guizhou borders the autonomous region of Guangxi to the ...
, the most deserted place in China at that time. Yangming soon recovered from the setback. While working on improving the living situations of people in Guizhou, Yangming developed his own philosophical principles, which were then called Yangminism, based on ''
The Great Learning The ''Great Learning'' or ''Daxue'' was one of the "Four Books" in Confucianism attributed to one of Confucius' disciples, Zengzi. The ''Great Learning'' had come from a chapter in the ''Book of Rites'' which formed one of the Five Classics. I ...
'' and Lu's work. Yangmingism became hugely popular in Southern China, especially Jiangxi and Jiangnan (except Suzhou), but not Anhui and Fujian, and by the sixteenth century the Cheng-Zhu orthodox school even in the North could not ignore its basic philosophical claims. The Yangmingist belief that all men were equally capable of moral behaviour led them to advocate the formation of ''jiangxue'' study communities and that participating in the state was not necessary, which in turn led to rise of the Donglin movement. Northern literati, more dependent on governmental routes to success than their Southern counterparts, were less receptive to Yangmingism.


Major philosophy principles


"The Supreme Principle is Buried in One's Heart-Mind"

Yangming inherits
Lu Jiuyuan Lu Jiuyuan (; 1139–1192), or Lu Xiangshan (陸象山; Lù Xiàngshān), was a Chinese philosopher and writer who founded the school of the universal mind, the second most influential Neo-Confucian school. He was a contemporary and the main ri ...
's idea that everything one needs can be found in one's heart, opposing to Cheng-Zhu's idea that one must learn from the external things. This was promoted with the adage "The Supreme Principle is Buried in One's Mind" (不离日用常行内,直到先天未画时). Yangming argues that there are countless matters existing in the world, we can never get to study all of, or even most of them. However, when we are interacting with the world, we are using our consciousness to look, smell, and hear what is all around us. Thus, we can find the existence of the whole world in our minds. If we think deeper, we can even see the extensions of the world there. The recognition of extensions here doesn't mean that one can see the whole picture of Eiffel Tower even he has never been to Paris. What Yangming has been trying to prove is that, as we have a completed set of perceptions of the world in our minds, we have as well gotten a hold of the ultimate philosophy, the truth of the world, the supreme principles which have been guiding and teaching us through the ages.


Achieve the ultimate consciousness

In his book, , or ''Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-Confucian Writings'' in English, Yangming writes that "there is nothing exists outside our minds, there is no supreme principle exists outside our hearts." However, the problem here is that we let all kinds of selfish desires cover up the supreme principle, so we can't practice the principle well in our daily lives. Yangming uses an example in his book to demonstrate his idea: if we see a child fall into water well, we can't help but feel bad for the child. The feeling of bad here is an embodiment of the inherent supreme principle in our minds. But, if the child happens to be the son of one's biggest enemy, he may not feel bad for the child after all. This is the situation in which the supreme principle is covered by selfish desires. If one can remove all selfish desires from one's heart, then he would achieve the ultimate consciousness, which is the final purpose pursued by many Chinese philosophers throughout centuries. One thing worth noticing here is that, the ultimate consciousness is also in accordance with Cheng-Zhu's "to acquire knowledge one must study things ()" in a way. This means that one must conduct appropriate behaviors under certain circumstances. For instance, everyone knows they should care about their families' wellbeing. But if one only asks whether his families are feeling good or bad and does nothing when he receives the answer "feeling bad", this cannot count as the ultimate consciousness. Only does one actually do things to take care of his families can be considered as knowing the ultimate consciousness.


The unity of inner knowledge and action

The unity of inner knowledge and action, or "", is probably the most important and well-known concept in Yangmingism. Yangming explains this concept as "Nobody can separate the knowledge and the action apart. If one knows, one will act. If one knows but don't act, then he has never actually known it. If you can obtain both, when you know something, you are already doing it; when you are doing something, then you already know it." "Nowadays, many people treat knowledge and actions as two distinct things. They think the need to know first, only then can they do something in this area. This lead them to do nothing, as well as to know nothing." In other words, could be interpret as the consistency of one's Supreme Principle and his objective actions. In the example of a child falling into water well, the action is not trying to save the child, but "feeling bad for the child". And the knowledge, the part of the Supreme Principle used here is the sympathy for others. For those who doesn't feel bad for the child, they haven't learn the knowledge of sympathy yet, thus they cannot apply the knowledge in their actions. Similar ideas can be found in the western literature. In
Demian ''Demian: The Story of Emil Sinclair's Youth'' is a Bildungsroman by Hermann Hesse, first published in 1919; a prologue was added in 1960. ''Demian'' was first published under the pseudonym "Emil Sinclair", the name of the narrator of the story, ...
,
Hermann Hesse Hermann Karl Hesse (; 2 July 1877 – 9 August 1962) was a German-Swiss poet, novelist, and painter. His best-known works include ''Demian'', '' Steppenwolf'', '' Siddhartha'', and ''The Glass Bead Game'', each of which explores an individual's ...
writes that "only the thoughts that we live out have any value."
MIT The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a private land-grant research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Established in 1861, MIT has played a key role in the development of modern technology and science, and is one of the m ...
's motto "Mens et Manus," or "Mind and Hand," also reflect the importance of combining the inner knowledge and actions as one.


The Four-Sentence Teaching

In 1528, one year before his death, Yangming summaries his philosophies into a doctrine called "the Four-Sentence Teaching ()". The original Chinese text is "". which can be translated as "The Substance of the mind lacks good and lacks evil. When intentions are formed there is good and there is evil. 'Pure knowing' is knowing good and knowing evil. 'Getting a handle on things' is to do good and eliminate evil."


Education philosophies

Yangming regards education as the most efficient way to inspire people to find the Supreme Principle in their minds; it means that not only do education institutions need to teach students academic knowledge, but they also need to teach students moral and ethical principles. He again emphasized the necessity of uniting knowledge and actions as one in the process of education. Yangming believed that in order to achieve something, one must set up a specific goal first.


Genres


Left philosophical genre


Zhezhong School

Notable figures in this genre include Nie Bao, Zou Shouyi, Xu Jie, and
Zhang Juzheng Zhang Juzheng (; 26 May 1525 – 9 July 1582), courtesy name Shuda (), pseudonym Taiyue (), was a Chinese politician who served as Senior Grand Secretary () in the late Ming dynasty during the reigns of the Longqing and Wanli emperors. He rep ...
. Zhezhong School emphasizes on inner virtues. Scholars in this school regard virtues and knowledge are the foundation of one's life, arguing that one should solely focus on learning instead of actively seeking fames or reputations. They emphasize the importance of education.


Right philosophical genre


Taizhou School

Notable figures include He Xinyin, Yan Shannong, and Wang Gen. Taizhou School became widespread because it focuses on the general public. Scholars in Taizhou School believe that even the most ordinary person has the possibility of accomplishing extraordinary achievements. Everyone is a potential saint, as the universal truth is buried their own mind. Taizhou School is rebellious against both the traditional and the Neo-Confucianism.


Critics

Chinese historian and philosopher,
Wang Fuzhi Wang Fuzhi (; 1619–1692), courtesy name Ernong (), pseudonym Chuanshan (), was a Chinese essayist, historian, and philosopher of the late Ming, early Qing dynasties. Life Born to a scholarly family in Hengyang in Hunan province in 1619, Wang F ...
, criticized that Yangming is more of a
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religions, Indian religion or Indian philosophy#Buddhist philosophy, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha. ...
follower than a
Neo-Confucianism Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, and originated with Han Yu (768–824) and Li Ao (772–841) in t ...
philosopher. Yangming's excessive concentration on minds had made his teaching contain a negative attitude coming from his early education in
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religions, Indian religion or Indian philosophy#Buddhist philosophy, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha. ...
. Wang didn't agree with Yangming that there is no good or bad exist in both the world and people's minds. He also argued that 知行合一, the unity of inner knowledge and actions had made people can no longer separate theories and actual matter apart.


In Japan

, or , is the branch of Yangmingism in Japan. Yangmingism was spread to Japan in the later periods of the Ming Dynasty by a traveling Japanese monk. From 1568 to 1603, Yangmingism was at its preliminary stage in Japan. Later, when the Ming Dynasty ended, some of the Ming scholars fled to Japan and helped to develop Yangmingism there. In 1789, Yangmingism became an influential philosophy among the Japanese. Yangmingism had also played an essential role to Japan's
Meiji Restoration The , referred to at the time as the , and also known as the Meiji Renovation, Revolution, Regeneration, Reform, or Renewal, was a political event that restored practical imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Although there were ...
.


See also

*
Kokutai is a concept in the Japanese language translatable as " system of government", "sovereignty", "national identity, essence and character", "national polity; body politic; national entity; basis for the Emperor's sovereignty; Japanese constitu ...
*
Ukehi is a Japanese Shinto divination ritual. Function and performance Hayashi Oen, a nineteenth-century practitioner of ''ukehi'', identified six functions of the rite. He claimed it could be used to: * ask for information or messages from the ''k ...


References

{{Authority control Neo-Confucianism Meiji_Restoration Confucianism_in_Japan