Luigi Chiarini (abbot)
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Luigi Chiarini was an Italian
abbot Abbot is an ecclesiastical title given to the male head of a monastery in various Western religious traditions, including Christianity. The office may also be given as an honorary title to a clergyman who is not the head of a monastery. The fem ...
, orientalist and
translator Translation is the communication of the Meaning (linguistic), meaning of a #Source and target languages, source-language text by means of an Dynamic and formal equivalence, equivalent #Source and target languages, target-language text. The ...
, born near Montepulciano (Italy), April 26, 1789, died February 28, 1832, in Warsaw (Poland), known for the first translation of the Talmud ( Talmud of Babylon and Talmud of Jerusalem) in French. His translation of the Talmud benefited from a grant from Tsar Nicholas I (Emperor of Russia).


Biography

Luigi Chiarini was born at
Valiano Valiano is a frazione of the town of Montepulciano in the Province of Siena, on the border between the regions of Umbria and Tuscany. It was an ancient feudal castle which, due to its strategic position and the role played by the family of Del Pec ...
in the province of Montepulciano in the region of
Tuscany Tuscany ( ; it, Toscana ) is a Regions of Italy, region in central Italy with an area of about and a population of about 3.8 million inhabitants. The regional capital is Florence (''Firenze''). Tuscany is known for its landscapes, history, art ...
, on 26 April 1789 to a Catholic family. His father Antonio was a carpenter, and his mother Stella was a smith's daughter. Luigi was educated at the Bishops'
Seminary A seminary, school of theology, theological seminary, or divinity school is an educational institution for educating students (sometimes called ''seminarians'') in scripture, theology, generally to prepare them for ordination to serve as clergy, ...
at Montepulciano. He specialised in
philosophy Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. Some ...
and
theology Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
as well as in
belles-lettres is a category of writing, originally meaning beautiful or fine writing. In the modern narrow sense, it is a label for literary works that do not fall into the major categories such as fiction, poetry, or drama. The phrase is sometimes used pejora ...
. He also mastered several languages, including French and
Hebrew Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
. Then he was sent to
Pisa Pisa ( , or ) is a city and ''comune'' in Tuscany, central Italy, straddling the Arno just before it empties into the Ligurian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Pisa. Although Pisa is known worldwide for its leaning tower, the cit ...
, where he studied the languages of the
Near East The ''Near East''; he, המזרח הקרוב; arc, ܕܢܚܐ ܩܪܒ; fa, خاور نزدیک, Xāvar-e nazdik; tr, Yakın Doğu is a geographical term which roughly encompasses a transcontinental region in Western Asia, that was once the hist ...
, theology and belles-lettres for five years. He obtained his
doctorate A doctorate (from Latin ''docere'', "to teach"), doctor's degree (from Latin ''doctor'', "teacher"), or doctoral degree is an academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism ''l ...
from the
University of Pisa The University of Pisa ( it, Università di Pisa, UniPi), officially founded in 1343, is one of the oldest universities in Europe. History The Origins The University of Pisa was officially founded in 1343, although various scholars place ...
on 19 August 1811. He became assistant to the Reverend Sebastiano Ciampi, professor of Latin and Greek, at the
Normal College A normal school or normal college is an institution created to train teachers by educating them in the norms of pedagogy and curriculum. In the 19th century in the United States, instruction in normal schools was at the high school level, turn ...
in Pisa. At that time, Luigi Chiarini published his own poems and his translations from Hebrew,
Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
and
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
, which he recited at the Pisa Literary Society. In recognition of his scientific achievements he was appointed member of the Italian Academy on 30 May 1818. Because of the turmoil of the revolution he left Pisa and went back to his native town, where he became chancellor of the Royal High School and professor of Italian and Latin. Soon, however, he left for Warsaw, where he was invited by Sebastiano Ciampi, who was already professor of the University of Warsaw at that time. In 1826 he was appointed professor of Oriental Languages and Antiquities at the Royal University of Warsaw with
Stanisław Kostka Potocki Count Stanisław Kostka Potocki (; November 1755 – 14 September 1821) was a Polish nobleman, politician, writer, public intellectual and patron of the arts. Life Potocki was a son of General and starost of Lwów, Eustachy Potocki and An ...
's backing. He offered lectures on the Introduction to the
Old Testament The Old Testament (often abbreviated OT) is the first division of the Christian biblical canon, which is based primarily upon the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh, a collection of ancient religious Hebrew writings by the Israelites. The ...
,
archaeology Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscap ...
, Hebrew language and ancient Hebrew materials. Among Chiarini's disciples mention should be made of the famed orientalist
Albert Kazimirski de Biberstein Albert Félix Ignace Kazimirski or Albin de Biberstein (20 November 1808 – 22 June 1887) was a French orientalist and Arabist of Polish origin, author of an Arabic-French dictionary and a number of Arab-French translations, including the Quran. ...
. Chiarini was a prominent member of the so-called "Jewish Committee," organized by imperial decree May 22, 1825. This committee established schools for Jewish boys and girls as well as classes of Hebrew for Christian young men to study
Jewish history Jewish history is the history of the Jews, and their nation, religion, and culture, as it developed and interacted with other peoples, religions, and cultures. Although Judaism as a religion first appears in Greek records during the Hellenisti ...
,
rabbinic literature Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense, is the entire spectrum of rabbinic writings throughout Jewish history. However, the term often refers specifically to literature from the Talmudic era, as opposed to medieval and modern rabbinic writ ...
, and even
yiddish Yiddish (, or , ''yidish'' or ''idish'', , ; , ''Yidish-Taytsh'', ) is a West Germanic language historically spoken by Ashkenazi Jews. It originated during the 9th century in Central Europe, providing the nascent Ashkenazi community with a ver ...
, which would enable them to do
missionary A missionary is a member of a Religious denomination, religious group which is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Tho ...
work among the
Jews of Poland The history of the Jews in Poland dates back at least 1,000 years. For centuries, Poland was home to the largest and most significant Ashkenazi Jewish community in the world. Poland was a principal center of Jewish culture, because of the l ...
. Chiarini was entrusted by this body to translate the Babylonian Talmud, for which the Russian government granted him a subsidy of 12,000
thalers A thaler (; also taler, from german: Taler) is one of the large silver coins minted in the states and territories of the Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburg monarchy during the Early Modern period. A ''thaler'' size silver coin has a diameter of ...
. He published his work, "Théorie du judaïsme appliquée à la réforme des Israélites de tous les pays de l'Europe, et servant en même temps d'ouvrage préparatoire à la version du Talmud de Babylone," 2 vols., Paris, 1830, as a precursor to the prescribed version of the Talmud which was to appear in six large folio volumes. Chiarini's book planned the reform of the Polish Jews, and also the general improvement of the condition of all Jews. This work is divided into three parts; in the first Chiarini states the difficulties of knowing the true character of Judaism; in the second he elucidates the theory of Judaism; and in the third the author treats of the reform of Judaism and discusses the means of removing what he considers its "pernicious" elements. In brief, Chiarini endeavors to prove that the purpoted evils of Judaism originate chiefly from the alleged harmful antisocial teachings of the Talmud. He argues that the state should assist the Jews in freeing themselves from the influence of the Talmud, and that they should return to the simple Mosaic faith. This goal can be attained in two ways: first, by the establishment of schools where
Bible The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity, Judaism, Samaritanism, and many other religions. The Bible is an anthologya compilation of texts of a ...
instruction is given and the
Hebrew grammar Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
studied; and, secondly, by a French translation of the Babylonian Talmud, with explanatory notes and refutations. The fact that it was to be translated into French rather than
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ger ...
or
Polish Polish may refer to: * Anything from or related to Poland, a country in Europe * Polish language * Poles, people from Poland or of Polish descent * Polish chicken *Polish brothers (Mark Polish and Michael Polish, born 1970), American twin screenwr ...
was a function of the importance of the French language in Europe in the nineteenth century, a period when it had reached its apogee as the language of cultured circles. Chiarini recognized that the popular knowledge of the Jews and Judaism was inadequate and defective, and that their enemies furnish nothing but distorted instead of correct information. Nevertheless, his work is pervaded with some of the traditional prejudices against which he protests; but, at the same time, he expresses a sincere concern for the spiritual and material welfare of the Jews, and a desire to improve their condition. His programme of enlightenment and reform was in some respects akin to that of the Jewish educated classes. Of Chiarini's translation of the Talmud only two volumes appeared, under the title "Le Talmud de Babylone, Traduit en Langue Française et Complété par Celui de Jérusalem et par d'Autres Monuments de l'Antiquité Judaïque," Leipzig, 1831. Volume One comprises introductory issues, such as the reason for the emergence of the Talmud (
Mishnah The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Torah ...
and
Gemara The Gemara (also transliterated Gemarah, or in Yiddish Gemo(r)re; from Aramaic , from the Semitic root ג-מ-ר ''gamar'', to finish or complete) is the component of the Talmud comprising rabbinical analysis of and commentary on the Mishnah w ...
), written and oral law, rabbinic tradition, differences between written and oral law, authors and editors of the Talmud, the Mishnaic style, commentaries to the Mishnah, Mekhilta,
Sifra Sifra (Aramaic: סִפְרָא) is the Halakhic midrash to the Book of Leviticus. It is frequently quoted in the Talmud, and the study of it followed that of the Mishnah. Like Leviticus itself, the midrash is occasionally called "Torat Kohanim", a ...
,
Sifre Sifre ( he, סִפְרֵי; ''siphrēy'', ''Sifre, Sifrei'', also, ''Sifre debe Rab'' or ''Sifre Rabbah'') refers to either of two works of ''Midrash halakha'', or classical Jewish legal biblical exegesis, based on the biblical books of Numbers a ...
,
Tosefta The Tosefta (Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: תוספתא "supplement, addition") is a compilation of the Jewish oral law from the late 2nd century, the period of the Mishnah. Overview In many ways, the Tosefta acts as a supplement to the Mishnah ( ...
,
Baraita ''Baraita'' (Aramaic: "external" or "outside"; pl. ''Barayata'' or ''Baraitot''; also Baraitha, Beraita; Ashkenazi: Beraisa) designates a tradition in the Jewish oral law not incorporated in the Mishnah. ''Baraita'' thus refers to teachings "ou ...
and
Genesis Rabbah Genesis Rabbah (Hebrew: , ''B'reshith Rabba'') is a religious text from Judaism's classical period, probably written between 300 and 500 CE with some later additions. It is a midrash comprising a collection of ancient rabbinical homiletical inter ...
, the Jerusalem Gemara, its authors and style, the Palestinian Talmud and the plan of its subdivision, Venetian edition, Cracow edition, the Babylonian Talmud,
Halakha ''Halakha'' (; he, הֲלָכָה, ), also transliterated as ''halacha'', ''halakhah'', and ''halocho'' ( ), is the collective body of Jewish religious laws which is derived from the written and Oral Torah. Halakha is based on biblical commandm ...
,
Aggadah Aggadah ( he, ''ʾAggāḏā'' or ''Haggāḏā''; Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: אַגָּדְתָא ''ʾAggāḏəṯāʾ''; "tales, fairytale, lore") is the non-legalistic exegesis which appears in the classical rabbinic literature of Judaism, ...
, groupings within Judaism,
Tannaim ''Tannaim'' ( Amoraic Hebrew: תנאים , singular , ''Tanna'' "repeaters", "teachers") were the rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the Mishnah, from approximately 10–220 CE. The period of the ''Tannaim'', also referred to as the Mis ...
,
Amoraim ''Amoraim'' (Aramaic language, Aramaic: plural or , singular ''Amora'' or ''Amoray''; "those who say" or "those who speak over the people", or "spokesmen") refers to Jewish scholars of the period from about 200 to 500 Common Era, CE, who "sai ...
and the
Hebrew calendar The Hebrew calendar ( he, הַלּוּחַ הָעִבְרִי, translit=HaLuah HaIvri), also called the Jewish calendar, is a lunisolar calendar used today for Jewish religious observance, and as an official calendar of the state of Israel. I ...
. The end of the first volume and the entire second volume comprise the translation of Berakhot, including both Mishnah and Gemara, that is to say, both the text and the ancient comment. According to
Herman Hedwig Bernard Herman Hedwig Bernard (1785–1857) was an English Hebraist (a specialist in Jewish, Hebrew and Hebraic studies), for many years a Hebrew teacher in the University of Cambridge. He died on 15 November 1857, aged 72. An apostate from Judaism, Ber ...
Chiarini's translation shows a most profound and accurate knowledge of
rabbinic literature Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense, is the entire spectrum of rabbinic writings throughout Jewish history. However, the term often refers specifically to literature from the Talmudic era, as opposed to medieval and modern rabbinic writ ...
. Chiarini's translation project was partly the catalyst for Ephraim Moses Pinner's proposed German translation of the Talmud (of which, like Chiarini's, only the first tractate, Berakhot, ever appeared). Chiarini's "Théorie du Judaïsme" was widely criticized and caused considerable discussion in the "Revue Encyclopédique" and in separate pamphlets by
Leopold Zunz Leopold Zunz ( he, יום טוב צונץ—''Yom Tov Tzuntz'', yi, ליפמן צונץ—''Lipmann Zunz''; 10 August 1794 – 17 March 1886) was the founder of academic Judaic Studies (''Wissenschaft des Judentums''), the critical investigation ...
,
Isaak Markus Jost Isaak Marcus (Markus) Jost (February 22, 1793, Bernburg – November 22, 1860, Frankfurt am Main Frankfurt, officially Frankfurt am Main (; Hessian: , "Frank ford on the Main"), is the most populous city in the German state of Hesse. Its ...
, and others. Besides many other works on
Italian poetry Italian poetry is a category of Italian literature. Italian poetry has its origins in the thirteenth century and has heavily influenced the poetic traditions of many European languages, including that of English. Features * Italian prosody is a ...
(Pisa, 1816 and 1818) and on the
history of astronomy Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, mythological, cosmological, calendrical, and astrological beliefs and practices of prehistory: vestiges of these are still found in ...
in the Orient, Chiarini wrote a Hebrew grammar and a Hebrew dictionary, both in
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
, translated into Polish by the Wilno Hebrew specialist Piotr Chlebowski, Warsaw, 1826 and 1829; he wrote also
Dei Funerali degli Ebrei Polacchi
("Concerning the Funerals of the Polish Jews," Bologna, 1826). Chiarini was compelled to give up his project of translating the Talmud because of the
November Uprising The November Uprising (1830–31), also known as the Polish–Russian War 1830–31 or the Cadet Revolution, was an armed rebellion in the heartland of partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire. The uprising began on 29 November 1830 in W ...
. He died in Warsaw on 28th February, 1832. His portrait by Teobaldo Fumi can be found in the Museo Civico di Montepulciano. At the Tsar's request his library was acquired by the Warsaw municipality, and an agreement was drawn up, providing for Stanislaus Hoga to use the library and to translate the Talmud into Polish on the same terms as had been agreed with Chiarini.


Criticism

Chiarini's projects met with sharp criticism. The French scholar August Arthur Beugnot wrote in "Revue Encyclopedique" (6: 1828 vol. 38) that treating the translation of the Talmud as a means to the reform of the Jews was an abortive idea. All in all, the reform of Judaism should be carried on by the Jews themselves and not by the aliens. Abraham Stern made a critical assessment of the Hebrew Dictionary published by Chiarini, and the latter replied that it was not the Dictionary that he meant but his translation of the Talmud. “When Stern criticises the Dictionary, he wants to prove that my knowledge of Hebrew is insufficient and, consequently, that I do not understand the Talmud.”''Odpowiedź na Recenzja Słownika hebrajskiego służąca razem za Czwarty artykuł o przekładzie babilońskiego Talmudu'' (The Reply to the Review of the Hebrew Dictionary Serving also as the Fourth Article on the Translation of the Babylonian Talmud), by Warszawa 1830. In France Chiarini's "Théorie du Judaïsme" gained several favourable reviews and a couple of very critical reviews.. In 1830 two reviews by the German Jews were published, namely by Jost and by Zunz, and by the Warsaw erudite Jakub Tugenhold, who charged Chairini with a complete unacquaintance with the rabbinic literature. German scholars suggested that he had not used source material. At the same time, a very favourable review by J. Elkana was published which praised the theory of the reform of Judaism presented by Chiarini.


Works

* * * * ** “Chaldean Astronomy Discovered in Ezekiel,” Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British and Foreign India, China, and Australasia, v. 4 — New Series, Jan. – April 1831. London: Parbury, Allen, & Co., 1831. * Observations sur un article de la "Revue encyclopédique", dans lequel on examine le projet de traduire le Talmud de Babylone... / par l'abbé L. Chiarini... / Paris : impr. de F. Didot, 1829. * Théorie du Judaïsme, appliquée à la réforme des Israélites de tous les pays de l'Europe, et servant en même temps d'ouvrage préparatoire à la version du Thalmud de Babylone / par l'Abbé L. A. Chiarini / Paris : J. Barbezat, 1830. * *


References

Notes Bibliography * * * * * * * * R. Marcinkowski, ''Luigi Chiarini (1789-1832) - jeden z pierwszych hebraistow Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego'' (Luigi Chiarini – One of the First Specialists in Hebrew of the University of Warsaw), „Uniwersytet Warszawski” 13: 2003 no. 2, pp. 24-25. * *


External links

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Chiarini, Luigi Italian abbots Talmud translators 1789 births 1832 deaths 19th-century translators Italian Hebraists Italian orientalists Italian male non-fiction writers Italian Roman Catholics People from Montepulciano University of Pisa alumni Academic staff of the University of Warsaw