The long-eared owl (''Asio otus''), also known as the northern long-eared owl
[Olsen, P.D. & Marks, J.S. (2019). ''Northern Long-eared Owl (Asio otus)''. In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. & de Juana, E. (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.] or, more informally, as the lesser horned owl or cat owl,
[Voous, K.H. (1988). ''Owls of the Northern Hemisphere''. The MIT Press, .] is a medium-sized species of
owl
Owls are birds from the order Strigiformes (), which includes over 200 species of mostly solitary and nocturnal birds of prey typified by an upright stance, a large, broad head, binocular vision, binaural hearing, sharp talons, and feathers a ...
with an extensive breeding range. The scientific name is from
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
. The genus name ''Asio'' is a type of eared owl, and ''otus'' also refers to a small, eared owl.
The species breeds in many areas through
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located entirel ...
and the
Palearctic, as well as in
North America. This species is a part of the larger grouping of owls known as
typical owls, of the family
Strigidae
The true owls or typical owls (family Strigidae) are one of the two generally accepted families of owls, the other being the barn owls (Tytonidae). This large family comprises 230 living or recently extinct species in 24 genera. The typical owl ...
, which contains most extant species of owl (while the other taxonomic family of owls are the
barn owls, or
Tytonidae
Barn-owls (family Tytonidae) are one of the two families of owls, the other being the true owls or typical owls, Strigidae. They are medium to large owls with large heads and characteristic heart-shaped faces. They have long, strong legs wit ...
).
[''Owls of the World: A Photographic Guide'' by Mikkola, H. Firefly Books (2012), ]
This owl shows a partiality for semi-open habitats, particularly
woodland edge
A woodland edge or forest edge is the transition zone (ecotone) from an area of woodland or forest to fields or other open spaces. Certain species of plants and animals are adapted to the forest edge, and these species are often more familiar to hu ...
, as they prefer to roost and nest within
dense stands of wood but prefer to hunt over
open ground
Open terrain, open country or open ground is terrain which is mostly flat and free of obstructions such as trees and buildings. Examples include farmland, grassland and specially cleared areas such as an airport.
Such terrain is significant in ...
.
[ Johnsgard, P. A. (1988). ''North American owls: biology and natural history''. Smithsonian Institution.] The long-eared owl is a somewhat specialized predator, focusing its diet almost entirely on small rodent
Rodents (from Latin , 'to gnaw') are mammals of the order Rodentia (), which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws. About 40% of all mammal species are rodents. They are n ...
s, especially vole
Voles are small rodents that are relatives of lemmings and hamsters, but with a stouter body; a longer, hairy tail; a slightly rounder head; smaller eyes and ears; and differently formed molars (high-crowned with angular cusps instead of lo ...
s, which quite often compose most of their diet.[ Under some circumstances, such as ]population cycle A population cycle in zoology is a phenomenon where populations rise and fall over a predictable period of time. There are some species where population numbers have reasonably predictable patterns of change although the full reasons for population ...
s of their regular prey, arid
A region is arid when it severely lacks available water, to the extent of hindering or preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life. Regions with arid climates tend to lack vegetation and are called xeric or desertic. Most ...
or insular regional habitats or urbanization
Urbanization (or urbanisation) refers to the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It is predominantly t ...
, this species can adapt fairly well to a diversity of prey, including bird
Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweig ...
s and insect
Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body ( head, thorax and abdomen), three ...
s.[Kiat, Y., Perlman, G., Balaban, A., Leshem, Y., Izhaki, I., & Charter, M. (2008). ''Feeding specialization of urban Long-eared Owls, Asio otus (Linnaeus, 1758), in Jerusalem, Israel''. Zoology in the Middle East, 43(1), 49-54.][Trujillo, O., Díaz, G., & Moreno, M. (1989). ''Alimentación del búho chico (Asio otus canariensis) en Gran Canaria (Islas Canarias)''. Ardeola, 36(2), 193-231.][Village, A. (1981). ''The diet and breeding of Long-eared Owls in relation to vole numbers''. Bird Study, 28(3), 214-224.] All owls do not build their own nests. In the case of the long-eared owl, it generally utilizes nests that are built by other animals, with a partiality in many regions for those built by corvid
Corvidae is a cosmopolitan family of oscine passerine birds that contains the crows, ravens, rooks, jackdaws, jays, magpies, treepies, choughs, and nutcrackers. In colloquial English, they are known as the crow family or corvids. Currently, ...
s.[Marks, J. S. (1986). ''Nest-site characteristics and reproductive success of Long-eared Owls in southwestern Idaho''. The Wilson Bulletin, 547-560.][Glue, D. E. (1977). ''Breeding biology of Long-eared Owls''. British Birds, 70(8), 318-331.] Breeding success in this species is largely correlated with prey populations and predation risks.[ Unlike many owls, long-eared owls are not strongly territorial or sedentary. They are partially migratory and, although owls appear to generally use the same migratory routes and wintering sites annually, can tend to appear so erratically that they are sometimes characterized as “nomadic”.][Houston, C. S. (1997). ''Banding of Asio owls in south-central Saskatchewan''. In In: Duncan, James R.; Johnson, David H.; Nicholls, Thomas H., eds. Biology and conservation of owls of the Northern Hemisphere: 2nd International symposium. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-190. St. Paul, MN: US Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. 237-242. (Vol. 190).] Another fairly unique characteristic of this species is its partiality for regular roosts that are often shared by a number of long-eared owls at once.[Pirovano, A., Rubolini, D., & de Michelis, S. (2000). ''Winter roost occupancy and behaviour at evening departure of urban long‐eared owls''. Italian Journal of Zoology, 67(1), 63-66.][Bosakowski, T. (1984). ''Roost selection and behavior of the Long-eared Owl (Asio otus) wintering in New Jersey''. Raptor Res, 18(13), 7-142.] The long-eared owl is one of the most widely distributed and most numerous owl species in the world, and due to its very broad range and numbers it is considered a least concern species
A least-concern species is a species that has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as evaluated as not being a focus of species conservation because the specific species is still plentiful in the wild. T ...
by the IUCN. Nonetheless, strong declines have been detected for this owl in several parts of its range.[Kirk, D. A., & Hyslop, C. (1998). ''Population status and recent trends in Canadian raptors: a review''. Biological Conservation, 83(1), 91-118.]
Taxonomy
The long-eared owl was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus
Carl Linnaeus (; 23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after his Nobility#Ennoblement, ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné#Blunt, Blunt (2004), p. 171. (), was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, taxonomist, and physician who formalise ...
in 1758 in the tenth edition of his '' Systema Naturae'' under the binomial name ''Strix otus''. This owl is now assigned to the genus
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nom ...
''Asio
''Asio'' is a genus of typical owls, or true owls, in the family Strigidae. This group has representatives over most of the planet, and the short-eared owl is one of the most widespread of all bird species, breeding in Europe, Asia, North and ...
'' that was introduced by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson
Mathurin Jacques Brisson (; 30 April 1723 – 23 June 1806) was a French zoologist and natural philosopher.
Brisson was born at Fontenay-le-Comte. The earlier part of his life was spent in the pursuit of natural history; his published works ...
in 1760.
Owls in the genus ''Asio'' are sometimes commonly referred to as eared owls. Despite their extensive distribution, only eight modern species are thought to exist. Four species are found both in Eurasia
Eurasia (, ) is the largest continental area on Earth, comprising all of Europe and Asia. Primarily in the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres, it spans from the British Isles and the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Japanese archipelago ...
and Africa
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
, and in the Americas
The Americas, which are sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North and South America. The Americas make up most of the land in Earth's Western Hemisphere and comprise the New World.
Along with th ...
, including the long-eared owl and short-eared owl.[Wink, M., El-Sayed, A. A., Sauer-Gürth, H., & Gonzalez, J. (2009). ''Molecular phylogeny of owls (Strigiformes) inferred from DNA sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b and the nuclear RAG-1 gene''. Ardea, 97(4), 581-592.] Despite similarities and being considered as in the same genus, it was found in a study utilizing electrophoresis that the genetic distance between long-eared owls and short-eared owl
The short-eared owl (''Asio flammeus'') is a widespread grassland species in the family Strigidae. Owls belonging to genus ''Asio'' are known as the eared owls, as they have tufts of feathers resembling mammalian ears. These "ear" tufts may or ...
s was unusually large for species within the same genera.[Randi, E., Fusco, G., Lorenzini, R., & Spina, F. (1991). ''Allozyme divergence and phylogenetic relationships within the Strigiformes''. The Condor, 93(2), 295-301.] Notwithstanding fossil records of ''Asio'' species showing their presence during prehistory in locations like Kansas
Kansas () is a state in the Midwestern United States. Its capital is Topeka, and its largest city is Wichita. Kansas is a landlocked state bordered by Nebraska to the north; Missouri to the east; Oklahoma to the south; and Colorado to th ...
and Idaho
Idaho ( ) is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. To the north, it shares a small portion of the Canada–United States border with the province of British Columbia. It borders the states of Montana and Wyomi ...
(''Asio brevipes'') and California
California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the m ...
(''Asio priscus''), the exact area of evolutionary origin of the long-eared owl is unknown and unlikely to ever be known.[Ford, N. L., & Murray, B. G. (1967). ''Fossil owls from the Hagerman local fauna (Upper Pliocene) of Idaho''. The Auk, 84(1), 115-117.] At least three modern species represent related derivations, possibly with long-eared owls as the paraspecies or as part of a species complex
In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related organisms that are so similar in appearance and other features that the boundaries between them are often unclear. The taxa in the complex may be able to hybridize readily with each oth ...
that potentially bears a basal common ancestor
Common descent is a concept in evolutionary biology applicable when one species is the ancestor of two or more species later in time. All living beings are in fact descendants of a unique ancestor commonly referred to as the last universal comm ...
.[ In all three cases, the related owls are obviously more ]tropical
The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in
the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...
in distribution and adapted to more humid conditions, with darker plumage, and larger bodies with apparently stronger feet and more overdeveloped talons, possibly exploiting a relatively unoccupied ecological niche
In ecology, a niche is the match of a species to a specific environmental condition.
Three variants of ecological niche are described by
It describes how an organism or population responds to the distribution of resources and competitors (for ...
against competing owls.[ One of these three is the ]Stygian owl
The stygian owl (''Asio stygius'') is a medium-sized "typical owl" in subfamily Striginae. It is found in Mexico, parts of Central America, Cuba, Hispaniola, and 10 countries in South America.HBW and BirdLife International (2020) ''Handbook of ...
, which is the darkest derivation of all and readily known to be distinct for some time.[ The other two slightly larger, tropical species, possibly housed in a ]species complex
In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related organisms that are so similar in appearance and other features that the boundaries between them are often unclear. The taxa in the complex may be able to hybridize readily with each oth ...
with the long-eared owl, were at one time considered to be part of the long-eared owl species. One of these is the Madagascar owl
The Madagascar owl (''Asio madagascariensis''), also known as the Madagascan owl or Madagascar long-eared owl, is a medium-sized owl endemic to the island of Madagascar. It is sometimes considered to be conspecific with the long-eared owl (''Asio ...
(''Asio madagascariensis''), obviously endemic
Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found else ...
to the island of its name, while the other is the Abyssinian owl (''Asio abyssinicus''), native to east Africa, especially in the northern area such as Ethiopia
Ethiopia, , om, Itiyoophiyaa, so, Itoobiya, ti, ኢትዮጵያ, Ítiyop'iya, aa, Itiyoppiya officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the ...
.[Mayr, E., & Short, L. L. (1970). ''Species taxa of North American birds: a contribution to comparative systematics''. Nuttall Ornithological Club.][Voous, K. H. (1966). ''The distribution of owls in Africa in relation to general zoogeographical problems''. Ostrich, 37(sup1), 499-506.][Snow, D. W. (1978). ''The nest as a factor determining clutch-size in tropical birds''. Journal für Ornithologie, 119(2), 227-230.] While the marsh owl
The marsh owl (''Asio capensis'') is a medium to large species of owl in the family Strigidae.
Description
Medium-sized, dark brown with a pumpkin-shaped head with small 'ear' tufts. The facial disc is pale buff, with a distinct dark brown ri ...
of Africa
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
is outwardly very similar to and likely closely related to the short-eared owl, the striped owl
The striped owl (''Asio clamator'') is a medium-sized owl with large ear tufts and a brownish-white facial disk rimmed with black. Its beak is black, and it has cinnamon-colored eyes. It has shorter, rounder wings than most of its close relative ...
(''Asio clamator'') is somewhat of an outlier among living ''Asio'' species and of mysterious origin. Despite being genetically related to the other living ''Asio'' species, it does not appear to be a close cousin.[ Studies of the ]mitochondrial genome
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA or mDNA) is the DNA located in mitochondria, cellular organelles within eukaryotic cells that convert chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Mitochondrial ...
found that the ''Asio'' genus, and consequently the long-eared owl, diverged most recently among living owl groups from the ''Otus'' or scops owl genus, with a more distant branch division from the '' Strix'' genus. A study of the genetic homogeny of long-eared owls in a single roost site was shown to be slightly higher than between different roosts. However, this homogeny is relatively low for a communal roosting bird in general.[Galeotti, P., Pilastro, A., Tavecchia, G., Bonetti, A., & Congiu, L. (1997). ''Genetic similarity in long‐eared owl communal winter roosts: a DNA fingerprinting study''. Molecular Ecology, 6(5), 429-435.]
Subspecies
Four subspecies of the long-eared owl are recognised:
*''A. o. otus'' (Linnaeus
Carl Linnaeus (; 23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after his ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné Blunt (2004), p. 171. (), was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, taxonomist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the ...
, 1758) – This is the nominate subspecies and is distributed throughout the species' range in the Palearctic. It may be found as far west as the Azores
)
, motto =( en, "Rather die free than subjected in peace")
, anthem= ( en, "Anthem of the Azores")
, image_map=Locator_map_of_Azores_in_EU.svg
, map_alt=Location of the Azores within the European Union
, map_caption=Location of the Azores wi ...
, northwestern Africa, the Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula (),
**
* Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica''
**
**
* french: Péninsule Ibérique
* mwl, Península Eibérica
* eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, def ...
and the British Isles
The British Isles are a group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-western coast of continental Europe, consisting of the islands of Great Britain, Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Inner and Outer Hebrides, the Northern Isles, ...
through as far east as Sakhalin
Sakhalin ( rus, Сахали́н, r=Sakhalín, p=səxɐˈlʲin; ja, 樺太 ''Karafuto''; zh, c=, p=Kùyèdǎo, s=库页岛, t=庫頁島; Manchu: ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ, ''Sahaliyan''; Orok: Бугата на̄, ''Bugata nā''; Nivkh ...
, Japan and northern China. Some populations of this race may winter as far south as Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Medit ...
, Pakistan
Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 243 million people, and has the world's second-lar ...
, northern India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
and southern China. The wing chord of the nominate subspecies ranges between and the tail
The tail is the section at the rear end of certain kinds of animals’ bodies; in general, the term refers to a distinct, flexible appendage to the torso. It is the part of the body that corresponds roughly to the sacrum and coccyx in mammal ...
length may be between . Size appears to increase slightly from west to east, with owls in China being about 4% larger winged than those from Europe. Despite there being no known published weights for eastern/Chinese long-eared owls, they appear to obtain the largest sizes within the species.[ In this subspecies, the facial disc tends to be pale ochraceous tawny, rimmed black with relatively short eyebrows that are marked whitish or absent entirely of markings. The erectile ear-tufts are prominent, being colored mainly blackish-brown with tawny edges. The upperparts are ochraceous-tawny, finely peppered with dusky spots and blackish streaks on a grey "veil", while the crown is finely ]mottle
Mottle is a pattern of irregular marks, spots, streaks, blotches or patches of different shades or colours. It is commonly used to describe the surface of plants or the skin of animals. In plants, mottling usually consists of yellowish spots o ...
d to dusky. The nape and hindneck bear dusky shaft-streaks with the feather outer webs of the scapulars being whitish, forming a row across the shoulder. Primaries
Primary elections, or direct primary are a voting process by which voters can indicate their preference for their party's candidate, or a candidate in general, in an upcoming general election, local election, or by-election. Depending on the c ...
basally are uniformly ochraceous-tawny, distally barred light and dark, while the secondaries are barred ochraceous and dusky. The tail is typically tawny with a greyish wash, overlaid with 6-8 very narrow dark brown bars. The underparts have a base colour of ochre, with the foreneck and upper breast marked with blackish-brown streaks; these become paler below and marked with dusky shaft-streaks and narrow cross-bars. The underwing has distinctive barring and dark comma-like markings at the wrist (conspicuously lacking on overlapping Eurasian short-eared owl
The short-eared owl (''Asio flammeus'') is a widespread grassland species in the family Strigidae. Owls belonging to genus ''Asio'' are known as the eared owls, as they have tufts of feathers resembling mammalian ears. These "ear" tufts may or ...
s). The eyes tend to be yellowish-orange to orange, but occasionally may be chrome yellow
__NOTOC__
Chrome yellow is a yellow pigment in paints using monoclinic lead(II) chromate (PbCrO4). It occurs naturally as the mineral crocoite but the mineral ore itself was never used as a pigment for paint. After the French chemist Louis Va ...
. The cere
The beak, bill, or rostrum is an external anatomical structure found mostly in birds, but also in turtles, non-avian dinosaurs and a few mammals. A beak is used for eating, preening, manipulating objects, killing prey, fighting, probing for food ...
is brownish-flesh
Flesh is any aggregation of soft tissues of an organism. Various multicellular organisms have soft tissues that may be called "flesh". In mammals, including humans, ''flesh'' encompasses muscles, fats and other loose connective tissues, but ...
, the bill is grey and the talons are blackish-grey. In this subspecies, the downy chick is whitish with pink skin, while the mesoptile plumage is fluffy greyish to brownish-white with diffusely barred dusky flight and tail feathers, being similar to adults but with the ear-tufts not yet developed.[
*''A. o. canariensis'' ( Madarász, 1901) – This subspecies is ]endemic
Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found else ...
to the Canary Islands. With a wing chord measurement of , this is seemingly the smallest subspecies of the long-eared owl.[ This race averages darker than most long-eared owls of the nominate subspecies, bearing heavier and sharper dark markings overall. Furthermore, the Canary Island long-eared owls tend to have brighter reddish-orange eyes.][Baez, M. (1992). ''Zoogeography and evolution of the avifauna of the Canary Islands''. Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County Science Series, 36, 425-431.]
*''A. o. wilsonianus'' (Lesson, 1830) – This subspecies is found in south-central and southeastern Canada (Manitoba to Nova Scotia) to southern USA (north Oklahoma and Virginia).[ The wing chord typically measures . In general, American long-eared owls are more vividly marked than many Eurasian populations. The facial disc is bright rufous, with a strong blackish rim and extensive white about the disc. The eyes are typically a deep yellow. Meanwhile, the markings on the underside usually are quite blackish and prominent with distinct cross-bars.
*''A. o. tuftsi'' Godfrey, 1948 – The range is from western Canada (southern Yukon to southwest Manitoba) to south-central USA (west Texas). It differs from ''A. o. wilsonianus'' in having paler plumage. The brown mottling on upper parts is paler and more restricted.][ Although 1947 is printed on the title page, the article was not published until 1948.] It is weakly differentiated and may comprise clinal variations due to region and habitat, rather than subspecific differences.[
]
Description
This species is a rather slim and long winged owl with usually prominent erectile ear tufts, which are positioned closer to the center of the head than in many other types of owl. The purposes of ear tufts are not definitively known and are present in about half of living owls.[ Arguably the most popular theory amongst ]biologist
A biologist is a scientist who conducts research in biology. Biologists are interested in studying life on Earth, whether it is an individual Cell (biology), cell, a multicellular organism, or a Community (ecology), community of Biological inter ...
s and ornithologists is that ear tufts could be a means of intraspecies communication of intent and mood.[Steinbach, G. (1980). Die Welt der Eulen. Hoffmann u. Campe.] In general coloration, the long-eared owl is often considered a hue of ochraceous
Ochre ( ; , ), or ocher in American English, is a natural clay earth pigment, a mixture of ferric oxide and varying amounts of clay and sand. It ranges in colour from yellow to deep orange or brown. It is also the name of the colours produced ...
- tawny with a grayish or brown
Brown is a color. It can be considered a composite color, but it is mainly a darker shade of orange. In the CMYK color model used in printing or painting, brown is usually made by combining the colors orange and black. In the RGB color model us ...
ish wash variably manifesting. The base color is commonly overlaid with variable black
Black is a color which results from the absence or complete absorption of visible light. It is an achromatic color, without hue, like white and grey. It is often used symbolically or figuratively to represent darkness. Black and white ...
ish vertical streaks (and occasionally spots), which are usually more apparent about the wings and back. The scapula
The scapula (plural scapulae or scapulas), also known as the shoulder blade, is the bone that connects the humerus (upper arm bone) with the clavicle (collar bone). Like their connected bones, the scapulae are paired, with each scapula on eith ...
rs are usually marked whitish, which provide further contrast when seen against the base color and blackish markings. The wing's dark carpal patches can also display broad panels of buff
Buff or BUFF may refer to:
People
* Buff (surname), a list of people
* Buff (nickname), a list of people
* Johnny Buff, ring name of American world champion boxer John Lisky (1888–1955)
* Buff Bagwell, a ring name of American professional ...
or almost orange
Orange most often refers to:
*Orange (fruit), the fruit of the tree species '' Citrus'' × ''sinensis''
** Orange blossom, its fragrant flower
*Orange (colour), from the color of an orange, occurs between red and yellow in the visible spectrum
* ...
on the wings across the base of primaries, which represent a more richly emphasized version of a pattern shared with other owls that tend to be vole
Voles are small rodents that are relatives of lemmings and hamsters, but with a stouter body; a longer, hairy tail; a slightly rounder head; smaller eyes and ears; and differently formed molars (high-crowned with angular cusps instead of lo ...
-hunting specialists, like short-eared owl
The short-eared owl (''Asio flammeus'') is a widespread grassland species in the family Strigidae. Owls belonging to genus ''Asio'' are known as the eared owls, as they have tufts of feathers resembling mammalian ears. These "ear" tufts may or ...
s (''Asio flammeus'') and great gray owl (''Strix nebulosa''). On the underside, the body tends to be a somewhat paler ochraceous-tawny compared to the upperside. Long-eared owls tend to have dusk
Dusk occurs at the darkest stage of twilight, or at the very end of astronomical twilight after sunset and just before nightfall.''The Random House College Dictionary'', "dusk". At predusk, during early to intermediate stages of twilight, enou ...
y streaks on the upper breast, below which they may be heavily marked with herring bone pattern (which is created by dusky shaft-streaks and crossbars on these feathers).[Hume, R. (1991). ''Owls of the world''. Running Press, Philadelphia.] There is much individual and regional variation in markings with owls dwelling in more extensively forested regions tending to be of a darker hue, often so densely washed above as to appear largely dusky brown on the back and the underside largely overlaid with bolder dusky-blackish marks. Meanwhile, in some desert-like regions, the plumage may tend towards a somewhat more washed out look, at times appearing fairly cream
Cream is a dairy product composed of the higher-fat layer skimmed from the top of milk before homogenization. In un-homogenized milk, the fat, which is less dense, eventually rises to the top. In the industrial production of cream, this process ...
or yellow
Yellow is the color between green and orange on the spectrum of light. It is evoked by light with a dominant wavelength of roughly 575585 nm. It is a primary color in subtractive color systems, used in painting or color printing. In the ...
ish, with sparser and lighter dusky markings overall.[Mikkola, H. (1983). ''Owls of Europe''. T. & AD Poyser.] The facial disc is visibly well developed and variably colored (see subspecies) in the species, rimmed dusky often with white running down along the center through the bill, while at times the white lines form a “moustache” and/or extending to the inside of the facial disc rim. The ear tufts are usually dusky in front and paler tawny on the back. Long-eared owl possess a blackish bill color while its eyes may vary from yellowish-orange to orange-red, tarsi and toes feathered.[
The long-eared owl is a medium-sized owl, which measures between in total length.][Hume, R., Still, R., Swash, A., Harrop, H., & Tipling, D. (2016). ''Britain's Birds: An Identification Guide to the Birds of Britain and Ireland''. Princeton University Press.] Their wingspan is relatively large for their size, measuring .[''Snake River Birds of Prey'' (1985). US Bureau of Land Management, Idaho Power Company, Idaho. Fish and Game Dept, U.S. Government Printing Office.][Sprunt, A., & May, J. B. (1955). ''North American birds of prey''. Published under the sponsorship of the National Aububon Society by Harper.] However, compared to other widespread owls considered of medium size and to which they can appear broadly similar in size, such as barn owl (''Tyto alba''), short-eared owl
The short-eared owl (''Asio flammeus'') is a widespread grassland species in the family Strigidae. Owls belonging to genus ''Asio'' are known as the eared owls, as they have tufts of feathers resembling mammalian ears. These "ear" tufts may or ...
s and tawny owl
The tawny owl (''Strix aluco''), also called the brown owl, is commonly found in woodlands across Europe to western Siberia, and has seven recognized subspecies. It is a stocky, medium-sized owl, whose underparts are pale with dark streaks, a ...
s (''Strix aluco''), the long-eared owl is quite a bit lighter and slenderer bodied, with mature weights around half of those of tawny owls not being uncommon.[Earhart, C. M., & Johnson, N. K. (1970). ''Size dimorphism and food habits of North American owls''. The Condor, 72(3), 251-264.][''CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses'' by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (1992), .] As expected in owls and birds of prey
Birds of prey or predatory birds, also known as raptors, are hypercarnivorous bird species that actively hunt and feed on other vertebrates (mainly mammals, reptiles and other smaller birds). In addition to speed and strength, these predat ...
in general, long-eared owls display reverse sexual dimorphism in which females are usually slightly larger than males (to the contrary of most non-raptorial birds). Males furthermore may tend to be somewhat paler in plumage than females. In Finland
Finland ( fi, Suomi ; sv, Finland ), officially the Republic of Finland (; ), is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It shares land borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of B ...
, one survey of the body mass of mature birds found that 22 males averaged while 20 females averaged .[ In body mass, European long-eared owls per a study were shown to run contrary to Bergmann's rule (that widespread animals should be smaller closer to the Equator) as body mass seemed to increase further south, being lightest in Sweden, where 37 males averaged and 24 females averaged , intermediate in ]Denmark
)
, song = ( en, "King Christian stood by the lofty mast")
, song_type = National and royal anthem
, image_map = EU-Denmark.svg
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of Denmark
, establish ...
and heaviest in the Netherlands
)
, anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands
, established_title = Before independence
, established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
, where 21 males averaged and 24 females averaged .[Erritzoe, J., & Fuller, R. (1999). ''Sex differences in winter distribution of Long-eared Owls (Asio otus) in Denmark and neighbouring countries''. Vogelwarte, 40, 80-87.] In migratory owls largely from Scandinavia
Scandinavia; Sámi languages: /. ( ) is a subregion in Northern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its constituent peoples. In English usage, ''Scandinavia'' most commonly refers to Denmark, Norway, and Swe ...
n summer grounds in England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe b ...
, the average weight of 8 males was and the average of 28 females was .[Harvey, P. V., & Riddiford, N. (1990). ''An uneven sex ratio of migrant Long‐eared Owls''. Ringing & Migration, 11(3), 132-136.] Meanwhile, in various studies in North America, 38 males (in Montana
Montana () is a state in the Mountain West division of the Western United States. It is bordered by Idaho to the west, North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, and the Canadian provinces of Alberta, British Columb ...
) were found to average , 55 males (also Montana in a different study) to average and 15 males (from Idaho
Idaho ( ) is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. To the north, it shares a small portion of the Canada–United States border with the province of British Columbia. It borders the states of Montana and Wyomi ...
) . From the same studies, respectively, 28 females averaged , 49 females averaged and 19 females averaged .[Marks, J. S., D. L. Evans, and D. W. Holt (1994). ''Long-eared Owl (Asio otus)'', version 2.0. In The Birds of North America (A. F. Poole and F. B. Gill, Editors). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA.][Ulmschneider, H. M. (1992). ''Wintering and nesting site use by Long-eared owls in the Snake River Birds of Prey Area, 1992''. Snake River Birds of Prey Research Proj. Annu. Rep. US Dep. Inter., Bur. Land Manage., Boise, Id, 362-366.] Museum specimens in North America were found to average in 38 males and in 28 females, while 520 migrating adults in Duluth
, settlement_type = City
, nicknames = Twin Ports (with Superior), Zenith City
, motto =
, image_skyline =
, image_caption = Clockwise from top: urban Duluth skyline; Minnesota ...
, Minnesota
Minnesota () is a state in the upper midwestern region of the United States. It is the 12th largest U.S. state in area and the 22nd most populous, with over 5.75 million residents. Minnesota is home to western prairies, now given over to ...
averaged .[Snyder, N. F., & Wiley, J. W. (1976). ''Sexual size dimorphism in hawks and owls of North America (No. 20). American Ornithologists' Union''.] In all, long-eared owl males may vary in weight from while females may vary from .[
In standard measurements, long-eared owls vary in wing chord length from in males, with 883 in North America averaging , and in females, with 520 American ones averaging . The ]tail
The tail is the section at the rear end of certain kinds of animals’ bodies; in general, the term refers to a distinct, flexible appendage to the torso. It is the part of the body that corresponds roughly to the sacrum and coccyx in mammal ...
may measure in males and in females, with 1,408 owls averaging .[Ridgway, R., & Friedmann, H. (1914). ''The Birds of North and Middle America: A Descriptive Catalog of the Higher Groups, Genera, Species, and Subspecies of Birds Known to Occur in North America, from the Arctic Lands to the Isthmus of Panama, the West Indies and Other Islands of the Caribbean Sea, and the Galapagos Archipelago'' (Vol. 50). US Government Printing Office.] Less widely measured are bill
Bill(s) may refer to:
Common meanings
* Banknote, paper cash (especially in the United States)
* Bill (law), a proposed law put before a legislature
* Invoice, commercial document issued by a seller to a buyer
* Bill, a bird or animal's beak
Plac ...
length, which averaged in males and in females from North America, and tarsus length, which averaged in 20 males and for 16 females from Europe, with a range in both sexes of . In terms of their skeletal structure, it bears a relatively wide skull but relatively small eyes and orbits, while the beak
The beak, bill, or rostrum is an external anatomical structure found mostly in birds, but also in turtles, non-avian dinosaurs and a few mammals. A beak is used for eating, preening, manipulating objects, killing prey, fighting, probing for foo ...
is relatively elongated but weak.[ The legs are relatively long and thin and, while needle-sharp, the talons are relatively fine and the feet relatively weak for an owl. However, the talons are still highly proficient at drawing blood if contact is made with human skin.][Schneider, H., & Niedl, W. (1968). ''Freundschaft mit Waldtieren''.][Csermely, D., Rossi, O., & Nasi, F. (2012). ''Comparison of claw geometrical characteristics among birds of prey and non-raptorial birds''. Italian Journal of Zoology, 79(3), 410-433.]
Identification
If seen well, an experienced observer is usually able to distinguish a long-eared owl by combination of its field marks, size and coloration. However, some potential owl species may be confused for them. The Stygian owl
The stygian owl (''Asio stygius'') is a medium-sized "typical owl" in subfamily Striginae. It is found in Mexico, parts of Central America, Cuba, Hispaniola, and 10 countries in South America.HBW and BirdLife International (2020) ''Handbook of ...
s(''Asio stygius'') (which barely overlaps, perhaps in northern Mexico) is larger with partially bare toes and generally darker with ink
Ink is a gel, sol, or solution that contains at least one colorant, such as a dye or pigment, and is used to color a surface to produce an image, text, or design. Ink is used for drawing or writing with a pen, brush, reed pen, or quill. Thicker ...
y and more boldly patterned plumage, with often nearly the enter facial mask appearing off-black.[Howell, S. N., & Webb, S. (1995). ''A guide to the birds of Mexico and northern Central America''. Oxford University Press.] Tawny owl
The tawny owl (''Strix aluco''), also called the brown owl, is commonly found in woodlands across Europe to western Siberia, and has seven recognized subspecies. It is a stocky, medium-sized owl, whose underparts are pale with dark streaks, a ...
s, which co-exist with long-eared owls in Eurasia, are unlikely to be mistaken given that they usually appear considerably rounder and bulkier overall (and are indeed slightly larger and much heavier), and possess a much broader, more rounded head. The tawny owl has no ear-tufts, eyes of blackish-brown colour and relatively shorter wings. In flight, tawny owls show well-fingered primaries (with five apparent emarginations) unlike the squared off wings of the long-eared owl.[Davis, A. H., & Prytherch, R. (1976). ''Field identification of Long-eared and Short-eared Owls''. British Birds, 69, 281-287.] The Eurasian eagle-owl
The Eurasian eagle-owl (''Bubo bubo'') is a species of eagle-owl that resides in much of Eurasia. It is also called the Uhu and it is occasionally abbreviated to just the eagle-owl in Europe. It is one of the largest species of owl, and femal ...
(''Bubo bubo'') is far larger and more massive than a long-eared owl with visibly more overdeveloped and powerful-looking feet and talons and a huge squared-off-looking head with the ear-tufts set nearer to the edge. The eagle-owl is often more heavily patterned on the crown and back with heavy blackish marking but has a less strongly demarcated (and shallower) facial disc when compared to the long-eared owl.[ In some parts of the wintering range, other eagle-owls may scarcely abut the wide range of long-eared owls in Eurasia (and perhaps northwestern Africa) but are usually distinguishable (similarly as in the Eurasian species) by size differences, plumage characteristics and, occasionally, habitat preferences.][ Asian fish owls, which are essentially a subset of eagle-owls, are generally also much larger than long-eared owls with tousled-looking ear-tufts, less variable coloring and often feathered over only part of their tarsi.][ In North America, ]great horned owl
The great horned owl (''Bubo virginianus''), also known as the tiger owl (originally derived from early naturalists' description as the "winged tiger" or "tiger of the air"), or the hoot owl, is a large owl native to the Americas. It is an extre ...
s (''Bubo virginianus''), yet another type of eagle-owl in all but name, have a squarish head and more widely separated ear-tufts. Like other ''Bubo'' species, great horned owls are also perceptibly larger and more massively built than any long-eared owl (despite being smaller than the Eurasian eagle-owl). Great horned owls also have typically heavily barred, rather than streaked, underparts.[ Scops and ]screech owl
Screech owls are typical owls (Strigidae) belonging to the genus ''Megascops'' with 23 living species. For most of the 20th century, this genus was merged with the Old World scops owls in ''Otus'', but nowadays it is again considered separate ...
s are much smaller than long-eared owls, as well as differently marked (often with more individually varying overall coloring, i.e. from gray to brown to rufous
Rufous () is a color that may be described as reddish-brown or brownish-red, as of rust or oxidised iron. The first recorded use of ''rufous'' as a color name in English was in 1782. However, the color is also recorded earlier in 1527 as a dia ...
) and usually having rather short ear-tufts.[ The ]Marsh owl
The marsh owl (''Asio capensis'') is a medium to large species of owl in the family Strigidae.
Description
Medium-sized, dark brown with a pumpkin-shaped head with small 'ear' tufts. The facial disc is pale buff, with a distinct dark brown ri ...
(''Asio capensis'') (rare overlap, perhaps in northern Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria t ...
) is generally brown with quite different-looking fine mottling or barring below and has brown eyes and tiny ear-tufts.[
Over much of its range, long-eared owls occur with the related ]short-eared owl
The short-eared owl (''Asio flammeus'') is a widespread grassland species in the family Strigidae. Owls belonging to genus ''Asio'' are known as the eared owls, as they have tufts of feathers resembling mammalian ears. These "ear" tufts may or ...
, the latter species averaging slightly larger. Much has been written about distinguishing them in the field, though, if seen well, the resemblance between the species is not particularly strong. Furthermore, the two species differ in habitat preferences, with the short-eared owl often favoring (where available) any kind of entirely treeless, open habitats (including many wetland
A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded or saturated by water, either permanently (for years or decades) or seasonally (for weeks or months). Flooding results in oxygen-free (anoxic) processes prevailing, especially in the soils. The p ...
s and Arctic tundra
In physical geography, tundra () is a type of biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons. The term ''tundra'' comes through Russian (') from the Kildin Sámi word (') meaning "uplands", "treeless mou ...
as well as steppe, prairie
Prairies are ecosystems considered part of the temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome by ecologists, based on similar temperate climates, moderate rainfall, and a composition of grasses, herbs, and shrubs, rather than trees, as the ...
and extensive meadow
A meadow ( ) is an open habitat, or field, vegetated by grasses, herbs, and other non- woody plants. Trees or shrubs may sparsely populate meadows, as long as these areas maintain an open character. Meadows may be naturally occurring or arti ...
s), often avoiding the edge habitats favored by the long-eared owl.[ However, in dim light, at a distance or in flight, confusion is certainly possible.][Robertson, Iain S. (1982). ''Field identification of Long-eared and Short-eared Owls''. British Birds 75(5):227-229.] In both long-eared and short-eared owls, the flight style when seen has a distinctive, erratic and buoyant
Buoyancy (), or upthrust, is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of a partially or fully immersed object. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. Thus the pr ...
flapping quality that many birdwatcher
Birdwatching, or birding, is the observing of birds, either as a recreational activity or as a form of citizen science. A birdwatcher may observe by using their naked eye, by using a visual enhancement device like binoculars or a telescope, by ...
s consider reminiscent of a moth
Moths are a paraphyletic group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not butterflies, with moths making up the vast majority of the order. There are thought to be approximately 160,000 species of moth, many of w ...
. At rest, the ear-tufts of the long-eared owl serve to easily distinguish the two (although long-eared owls can sometimes hold their ear-tufts lax). The iris-colour differs: yellow in short-eared, and often orange in long-eared. Furthermore, the black surrounding the eyes is vertical and slight on the long-eared, and horizontal and far more conspicuous on the short-eared. Overall, the short-eared owl tends to be a paler, sandier-looking bird than the long-eared, lacking the darker and more extensive markings of the latter.[ There are a number of other ways in which the two species differ which are best seen when they are flying. Short-eared owls often have a broad white band along the rear edge of the wing, which is not shown by long-eared owls. On the upperwing, the short-eared owl's primary-patches are usually paler and more obvious. The band on the upper side of the short-eared owl's tail is usually bolder than that of the long-eared. The short-eared's innermost secondaries are often dark-marked, contrasting with the rest of the underwing. The long-eared owl has streaking throughout its underparts, whereas on the short-eared the streaking ends at the breast. The dark markings on the underside of the tips of the longest primaries are bolder on short-eared owls. The upperparts of short-eared owls are coarsely blotched, whereas on the long-eared they are more finely marked. The short-eared owl also differs structurally from the long-eared, having longer, slimmer wings. The shorter and broader wings in combination with a squarer tail in long-eared owls produce proportions more reminiscent of a ]buzzard
Buzzard is the common name of several species of birds of prey.
''Buteo'' species
* Archer's buzzard (''Buteo archeri'')
* Augur buzzard (''Buteo augur'')
* Broad-winged hawk (''Buteo platypterus'')
* Common buzzard (''Buteo buteo'')
* Eastern ...
than the short-eared owl.[Harris, A., Tucker, L., & Vinicombe, K. (1989). '' The Macmillan field guide to bird identification''. Macmillan; pg. 147-149.][Kemp, J.B. (1982). ''Tail-lengths of Long-eared and Short-eared Owls''. British Birds, 75(5): 230.] When studied by their osteological features, however, the long-eared and short-eared owls are difficult to distinguish.[Emslie, S. D. (1982). ''Osteological identification of Long-eared and Short-eared owls''. American Antiquity, 47(1), 155-157.]
Vocalizations and ear morphology
The long-eared owl has relatively large ear slits placed asymmetrically on the sides of its head, as in a majority of owls, with the left ear higher and right lower in order to allow them to absorb sound both from above and below.[Norberg, R. Å. (1977). ''Occurrence and independent evolution of bilateral ear asymmetry in owls and implications on owl taxonomy''. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B, Biological Sciences, 280(973), 375-408.] The ear slit very nearly occupy the full height of the skull, being are about , long and covered in movable skin flaps.[Collett, R. (1881). ''Craniets og øreaabningernes bygning hos de nordeuropæiske arter af familien Strigidae''. Brögger.][Schwartzkopff, J. (1963). ''Morphological and physiological properties of the auditory system in birds''. Proc. XIII Inter. Ornithol. Congr, 1059-1068.] The right ear is about 13% larger based on freshly dead owls.[Schwartzkopff, J. (1962). ''Zur Frage des Richtungshörens von Eulen (Striges)''. Zeitschrift für vergleichende Physiologie, 45(5), 570-580.] Due to its ear structure, the hearing of a long-eared owl is around ten times better at hearing high and medium pitches than humans.[van Dijk, T. (1973). ''A Comparative Study of Hearing in Owls of the Family Strigidae''. Neth J. Zool; 23:131-167.] Barn owls and boreal owl
The boreal owl or Tengmalm's owl (''Aegolius funereus'') is a small owl in the "true owl" family Strigidae. It is known as the boreal owl in North America and as Tengmalm's owl in Europe after Swedish naturalist Peter Gustaf Tengmalm or, more ...
(''Aegolius funereus'') have (via convergent evolution
Convergent evolution is the independent evolution of similar features in species of different periods or epochs in time. Convergent evolution creates analogous structures that have similar form or function but were not present in the last com ...
) roughly similar ear structures, with the relative size of the ear structure and facial disc in owls generally indicative of the level of importance of acute hearing to their life history. Owls with relatively smaller ear slits and shallower or vestigial facial discs tend to skew towards more crepuscular or partially diurnal behaviors, whereas owls such as long-eared owls are more or less entirely nocturnal. It is well known that a majority of owls can hunt in darkness due to their extraordinary hearing, which allows them to pinpoint locations of prey, but they can also utilize their hearing to track intraspecific calls and activities and avoid predation risks.[
The vocalizations of this species are highly variable. Amongst owls of all ages, long-eared owls in ]Michigan
Michigan () is a U.S. state, state in the Great Lakes region, Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest, upper Midwestern United States. With a population of nearly 10.12 million and an area of nearly , Michigan is the List of U.S. states and ...
were recorded to have made 23 different vocalizations. Karel Voous considered them to likely be the most diverse vocalists of all owl species in the Northern hemisphere.[Armstrong, W. H. (1958). ''Nesting and food habits of the Long-eared Owl in Michigan (Vol. 1)''. Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science.] The song of the male long-eared owl is a deep ''whoop'', which is repeated at intervals of several seconds. It starts with some hoots at slightly lower pitch before reaching full volume
Volume is a measure of occupied three-dimensional space. It is often quantified numerically using SI derived units (such as the cubic metre and litre) or by various imperial or US customary units (such as the gallon, quart, cubic inch). Th ...
and quality. On calm nights, this song may carry over up to away (at least to human auditory perception). The song of the male is around 400 hertz
The hertz (symbol: Hz) is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units (SI), equivalent to one event (or cycle) per second. The hertz is an SI derived unit whose expression in terms of SI base units is s−1, meaning that o ...
.[ In North America, some observers have considered the male's song as ]analogous
Analogy (from Greek ''analogia'', "proportion", from ''ana-'' "upon, according to" lso "against", "anew"+ ''logos'' "ratio" lso "word, speech, reckoning" is a cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject ...
to the deep cooing of band-tailed pigeon
The band-tailed pigeon (''Patagioenas fasciata'') is a medium-sized bird of the Americas. Its closest relatives are the Chilean pigeon and the ring-tailed pigeon, which form a clade of ''Patagioenas'' with a terminal tail band and iridescent p ...
s (''Patagioenas fasciata'').[ Females gives a weaker, less clear and much higher pitched song with a nasal quality. In nearly all owl species, the females, despite being typically the larger sex, have smaller syrinx than the males and so tend to have less powerful voices.][ The call of the female is at times compared to a weak ]tin whistle
The tin whistle, also called the penny whistle, is a simple six-holed woodwind instrument. It is a type of fipple flute, putting it in the same class as the recorder, Native American flute, and other woodwind instruments that meet such criteria ...
and is only audible at close range, being about 4-5 halftones higher than the song of the male.[ Females usually call only in duet with male during courtship, but also when the nest is selected and around the beginning of incubation (probably in conjunction with food-begging). In fact, close study has revealed that female calling may occur as frequently as every 2–8 seconds at times of night between nest selection and egg laying.][ Both sexes utter a ]cat
The cat (''Felis catus'') is a domestic species of small carnivorous mammal. It is the only domesticated species in the family Felidae and is commonly referred to as the domestic cat or house cat to distinguish it from the wild members of ...
-like, somewhat hoarse ''jaiow'' notes or high ''yip-yip'' notes, the latter reminiscent of a call made by barn owls. When disturbed near the nest holding young, both parents may utter a series of tinny tones, ''watt-watt-watt-watt''.[ During the period of courtship the male flies around and flaps its wing around, producing a clapping sound. During the display flight, the male may make as many as 20 claps.][ As with many owls, all ages may produce hissing sounds and bill snapping when they feel threatened, especially in the context of nesting.][Galeotti, P., Tavecchia, G., & Bonetti, A. (2000). ''Parental defence in Long‐eared Owls Asio otus: effects of breeding stage, parent sex and human persecution''. Journal of Avian Biology, 31(4), 431-440.] Fledging young call all with high-pitched, drawn-out notes, variously transcribed as ''feek'', ''peeyee'' and ''pzeei'', and are often likened to the noise of a gate swinging on a rust
Rust is an iron oxide, a usually reddish-brown oxide formed by the reaction of iron and oxygen in the catalytic presence of water or air moisture. Rust consists of hydrous iron(III) oxides (Fe2O3·nH2O) and iron(III) oxide-hydroxide (FeO( ...
y hinge.[
]
Distribution and habitat
The long-eared owl has an extremely large distributional range. In Eurasia
Eurasia (, ) is the largest continental area on Earth, comprising all of Europe and Asia. Primarily in the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres, it spans from the British Isles and the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Japanese archipelago ...
, they are distributed from the Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula (),
**
* Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica''
**
**
* french: Péninsule Ibérique
* mwl, Península Eibérica
* eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, def ...
and the British Isles
The British Isles are a group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-western coast of continental Europe, consisting of the islands of Great Britain, Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Inner and Outer Hebrides, the Northern Isles, ...
(including almost the entirety of Ireland
Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe, north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel (Grea ...
), in both of which they are found somewhat spottily but quite broadly, especially for an owl. From western France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Its metropolitan area ...
east through the remainder of Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located entirel ...
they are found nearly everywhere, though still usually quite common in these areas, there are small spots where they do not usually occur in Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
, Austria
Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous ...
and Southeastern Europe
Southeast Europe or Southeastern Europe (SEE) is a geographical subregion of Europe, consisting primarily of the Balkans. Sovereign states and territories that are included in the region are Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia (a ...
.[ In ]Scandinavia
Scandinavia; Sámi languages: /. ( ) is a subregion in Northern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its constituent peoples. In English usage, ''Scandinavia'' most commonly refers to Denmark, Norway, and Swe ...
they are found only as a breeding species in about the southern two-thirds of Norway
Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe, the mainland territory of which comprises the western and northernmost portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the ...
, Sweden and Finland
Finland ( fi, Suomi ; sv, Finland ), officially the Republic of Finland (; ), is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It shares land borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of B ...
while they usual persist year around in haunts in the southern tips of Norway and Sweden, respectively, as well as in all of Denmark
)
, song = ( en, "King Christian stood by the lofty mast")
, song_type = National and royal anthem
, image_map = EU-Denmark.svg
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of Denmark
, establish ...
. In coastal Norway they are found at their worldwide northern limit as breeding bird, with long-eared owls nesting as far north as in the Subarctic zone of Troms
Troms (; se, Romsa; fkv, Tromssa; fi, Tromssa) is a former county in northern Norway. On 1 January 2020 it was merged with the neighboring Finnmark county to create the new Troms og Finnmark county. This merger is expected to be reversed by t ...
.[ In latitudinal range, they are found as far south the ]Azores
)
, motto =( en, "Rather die free than subjected in peace")
, anthem= ( en, "Anthem of the Azores")
, image_map=Locator_map_of_Azores_in_EU.svg
, map_alt=Location of the Azores within the European Union
, map_caption=Location of the Azores wi ...
, the Canary Islands while their limited breeding range in north Africa
North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
is from Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria t ...
to Tunisia
)
, image_map = Tunisia location (orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption = Location of Tunisia in northern Africa
, image_map2 =
, capital = Tunis
, largest_city = capital
, ...
, as well as seemingly in northernmost Algeria
)
, image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Algiers
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, relig ...
.[Jiguet, F., & Audevard, A. (2017). ''Birds of Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East: A Photographic Guide''. Princeton University Press.][Keith, S. (1989). ''Birds of the Middle East and North Africa: A Companion Guide''. Poyser Monographs.] Out of Europe, they are found very spottily as breeders in Turkey
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula in ...
, northernmost Syria, Israel
Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
and Lebanon
Lebanon ( , ar, لُبْنَان, translit=lubnān, ), officially the Republic of Lebanon () or the Lebanese Republic, is a country in Western Asia. It is located between Syria to Lebanon–Syria border, the north and east and Israel to Blue ...
.[ They are quite broadly distributed within ]Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and encompassing one-eig ...
, breeding in about the southern two-thirds of the country (north as far as roughly Chernyshevsky
Nikolay Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky ( – ) was a Russian literary and social critic, journalist, novelist, democrat, and socialist philosopher, often identified as a utopian socialist and leading theoretician of Russian nihilism. He was ...
and Yakutsk
Yakutsk (russian: Якутск, p=jɪˈkutsk; sah, Дьокуускай, translit=Djokuuskay, ) is the capital city of the Sakha Republic, Russia, located about south of the Arctic Circle. Fueled by the mining industry, Yakutsk has become one ...
) and often occurring year around in about the southern third of it (north to about the cities of Perm
Perm or PERM may refer to:
Places
*Perm, Russia, a city in Russia
** Permsky District, the district
**Perm Krai, a federal subject of Russia since 2005
**Perm Oblast, a former federal subject of Russia 1938–2005
**Perm Governorate, an administra ...
, Tyumen
Tyumen ( ; rus, Тюмень, p=tʲʉˈmʲenʲ, a=Ru-Tyumen.ogg) is the administrative center and largest city of Tyumen Oblast, Russia. It is situated just east of the Ural Mountains, along the Tura River. Fueled by the Russian oil and gas in ...
and Tomsk
Tomsk ( rus, Томск, p=tomsk, sty, Түң-тора) is a city and the administrative center of Tomsk Oblast in Russia, located on the Tom River. Population:
Founded in 1604, Tomsk is one of the oldest cities in Siberia. The city is a n ...
) and east to Siberia
Siberia ( ; rus, Сибирь, r=Sibir', p=sʲɪˈbʲirʲ, a=Ru-Сибирь.ogg) is an extensive region, geographical region, constituting all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has been a ...
, ranging far as Sakhalin
Sakhalin ( rus, Сахали́н, r=Sakhalín, p=səxɐˈlʲin; ja, 樺太 ''Karafuto''; zh, c=, p=Kùyèdǎo, s=库页岛, t=庫頁島; Manchu: ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ, ''Sahaliyan''; Orok: Бугата на̄, ''Bugata nā''; Nivkh ...
. Their range is continuous from Russia into most of Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan, officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country located mainly in Central Asia and partly in Eastern Europe. It borders Russia to the north and west, China to the east, Kyrgyzstan to the southeast, Uzbeki ...
, Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States
Georgia may also refer to:
Places
Historical states and entities
* Related to the ...
, Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan,, pronounced or the Kyrgyz Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Asia. Kyrgyzstan is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west, Tajikistan to the south, and the People's Republic of China to the ea ...
, about half of Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan (, ; uz, Ozbekiston, italic=yes / , ; russian: Узбекистан), officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( uz, Ozbekiston Respublikasi, italic=yes / ; russian: Республика Узбекистан), is a doubly landlocked co ...
and infrequently into northern Afghanistan
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is bordere ...
and Turkmenistan
Turkmenistan ( or ; tk, Türkmenistan / Түркменистан, ) is a country located in Central Asia, bordered by Kazakhstan to the northwest, Uzbekistan to the north, east and northeast, Afghanistan to the southeast, Iran to the sout ...
.[Dementiev, G. P., Gladkov, N. A., Ptushenko, E. S., Spangenberg, E. P., & Sudilovskaya, A. M. (1966). ''Birds of the Soviet Union, vol. 1''. Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem.] In the east, they range through most of Mongolia
Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million, ...
(absent from the southwest) and the western and eastern parts of northern China, with seasonally uncertain status in the Koreas. Long-eared owls are found throughout the islands of Japan but mainly winter only in points south of Osaka
is a designated city in the Kansai region of Honshu in Japan. It is the capital of and most populous city in Osaka Prefecture, and the third most populous city in Japan, following Special wards of Tokyo and Yokohama. With a population of ...
.[Brazil, M. (2009). Birds of East Asia: China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, and Russia. A&C Black.] The long-eared owl occurs apparently only in winter in small spots of southern France, southern Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders ...
, northwestern Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Medit ...
, northern Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
, southern Turkmenistan
Turkmenistan ( or ; tk, Türkmenistan / Түркменистан, ) is a country located in Central Asia, bordered by Kazakhstan to the northwest, Uzbekistan to the north, east and northeast, Afghanistan to the southeast, Iran to the sout ...
, broadly in much of Afghanistan
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is bordere ...
, Pakistan
Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 243 million people, and has the world's second-lar ...
and northern India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
(such as the Kutch, Punjab
Punjab (; Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising a ...
, Kashmir), as well as to the east in Bhutan
Bhutan (; dz, འབྲུག་ཡུལ་, Druk Yul ), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is situated in the Eastern Himalayas, between China in the north and India in the south. A mountainou ...
, southern China, Taiwan
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
and most of South Korea
South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula and sharing a land border with North Korea. Its western border is formed by the Yellow Sea, while its eas ...
.[ Irruptive wanderings have resulted in vagrant long-eared owls in various places such as the ]Faroe islands
The Faroe Islands ( ), or simply the Faroes ( fo, Føroyar ; da, Færøerne ), are a North Atlantic island group and an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark.
They are located north-northwest of Scotland, and about halfway bet ...
, Iceland
Iceland ( is, Ísland; ) is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean and in the Arctic Ocean. Iceland is the most sparsely populated country in Europe. Iceland's capital and largest city is Reykjavík, which (along with its s ...
and Madeira as well as Ryukyu Islands
The , also known as the or the , are a chain of Japanese islands that stretch southwest from Kyushu to Taiwan: the Ōsumi, Tokara, Amami, Okinawa, and Sakishima Islands (further divided into the Miyako and Yaeyama Islands), with Yona ...
in the east.[
This species is found widely distributed in North America as well. Their northern limits are reached in much of ]British Columbia
British Columbia (commonly abbreviated as BC) is the westernmost province of Canada, situated between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. It has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that include rocky coastlines, sandy beaches, ...
, though they are mainly absent from the western and coastal part, with the breeding range scarcely spilling over into the southern part of the Northwest Territories. As is the case in most of Eurasia, they are usually found at up to 50 degrees north. Long-eared owls are also found breeding in most of Alberta
Alberta ( ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is part of Western Canada and is one of the three prairie provinces. Alberta is bordered by British Columbia to the west, Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Ter ...
, all but northern Manitoba
, image_map = Manitoba in Canada 2.svg
, map_alt = Map showing Manitoba's location in the centre of Southern Canada
, Label_map = yes
, coordinates =
, capital = Winn ...
and southern Ontario
Ontario ( ; ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada.Ontario is located in the geographic eastern half of Canada, but it has historically and politically been considered to be part of Central Canada. Located in Central C ...
and Quebec
Quebec ( ; )According to the Canadian government, ''Québec'' (with the acute accent) is the official name in Canadian French and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in Canadian English is one of the thirtee ...
only to the southernmost part of the Hudson Bay. However, with the exception of inland southern British Columbia, southern Alberta, and the southern parts of Ontario and Quebec, as well as an isolated population in Newfoundland, long-eared owls usually vacate their Canadian range during winter.[Weidensaul, S. (2015). ''Owls of North America and the Caribbean''. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.] The species range as a breeding species is far more extensive in the west
West or Occident is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth.
Etymology
The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some ...
than the east
East or Orient is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from west and is the direction from which the Sun rises on the Earth.
Etymology
As in other languages, the word is formed from the fac ...
within the United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
.[ They breed in ]Washington
Washington commonly refers to:
* Washington (state), United States
* Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States
** A metonym for the federal government of the United States
** Washington metropolitan area, the metropolitan area centered o ...
, Montana
Montana () is a state in the Mountain West division of the Western United States. It is bordered by Idaho to the west, North Dakota and South Dakota to the east, Wyoming to the south, and the Canadian provinces of Alberta, British Columb ...
and North Dakota
North Dakota () is a U.S. state in the Upper Midwest, named after the indigenous Dakota Sioux. North Dakota is bordered by the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba to the north and by the U.S. states of Minnesota to the east, So ...
mostly continuously to much of California
California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the m ...
, where habitat is appropriate, Arizona
Arizona ( ; nv, Hoozdo Hahoodzo ; ood, Alĭ ṣonak ) is a state in the Southwestern United States. It is the 6th largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix. Arizona is part of the Fou ...
, western Colorado
Colorado (, other variants) is a state in the Mountain states, Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It encompasses most of the Southern Rocky Mountains, as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the wes ...
and western New Mexico
)
, population_demonym = New Mexican ( es, Neomexicano, Neomejicano, Nuevo Mexicano)
, seat = Santa Fe
, LargestCity = Albuquerque
, LargestMetro = Tiguex
, OfficialLang = None
, Languages = English, Spanish ( New Mexican), Navajo, Ke ...
as well as less broadly in South Dakota
South Dakota (; Sioux: , ) is a U.S. state in the North Central region of the United States. It is also part of the Great Plains. South Dakota is named after the Lakota and Dakota Sioux Native American tribes, who comprise a large porti ...
and Iowa
Iowa () is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States, bordered by the Mississippi River to the east and the Missouri River and Big Sioux River to the west. It is bordered by six states: Wisconsin to the northeast, Illinois to th ...
. Even though they are absent from the Pacific coasts in Washington and Oregon
Oregon () is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington, while the Snake River delineates much of its eastern boundary with Idaho. T ...
, they may be found breeding along the Pacific in southern California
Southern California (commonly shortened to SoCal) is a geographic and cultural region that generally comprises the southern portion of the U.S. state of California. It includes the Los Angeles metropolitan area, the second most populous urban a ...
and even Baja California
Baja California (; 'Lower California'), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Baja California ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Baja California), is a state in Mexico. It is the northernmost and westernmost of the 32 federal entities of Mex ...
in Mexico
Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
.[ The first record of breeding for mainland Mexico was recorded for an incidental observed nest built by owls in Janos Biosphere Reserve in Chihuahua.][Ruvalcaba-Ortega, I., Salinas-Rodríguez, M. M., Cruz-Nieto, J., & González-Rojas, J. I. (2014). ''First nesting record of the long-eared owl (Asio otus) for Chihuahua, Mexico''. The Southwestern Naturalist, 59(1), 135-139.] They also breed and occur year around in most of Minnesota
Minnesota () is a state in the upper midwestern region of the United States. It is the 12th largest U.S. state in area and the 22nd most populous, with over 5.75 million residents. Minnesota is home to western prairies, now given over to ...
, Wisconsin
Wisconsin () is a state in the upper Midwestern United States. Wisconsin is the 25th-largest state by total area and the 20th-most populous. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake M ...
and Michigan
Michigan () is a U.S. state, state in the Great Lakes region, Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest, upper Midwestern United States. With a population of nearly 10.12 million and an area of nearly , Michigan is the List of U.S. states and ...
. Breeding and/or year around occurrence is very rare in the eastern U.S. with a few records of them nesting in Maine
Maine () is a state in the New England and Northeastern regions of the United States. It borders New Hampshire to the west, the Gulf of Maine to the southeast, and the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec to the northeast and ...
, Virginia
Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern regions of the United States, between the Atlantic Coast and the Appalachian Mountains. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth ar ...
and West Virginia
West Virginia is a state in the Appalachian, Mid-Atlantic and Southeastern regions of the United States.The Census Bureau and the Association of American Geographers classify West Virginia as part of the Southern United States while the B ...
.[Sattler, H. R. (1995). ''The book of North American owls''. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.] The long-eared owl occurs much more broadly in North America during the non-breeding season and may found essentially all over the Midwest, Texas
Texas (, ; Spanish: ''Texas'', ''Tejas'') is a state in the South Central region of the United States. At 268,596 square miles (695,662 km2), and with more than 29.1 million residents in 2020, it is the second-largest U.S. state by ...
and as far south in Mexico as Colima
Colima (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Colima ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Colima), is one of the 31 states that make up the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It shares its name with its capital and main city, Colima.
Colima i ...
, Veracruz
Veracruz (), formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave), is one of the 31 states which, along with Me ...
and northern Oaxaca
Oaxaca ( , also , , from nci, Huāxyacac ), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca), is one of the 32 states that compose the political divisions of Mexico, Federative Entities of Mexico. It is ...
. The species also occurs in the non-breeding season in Louisiana
Louisiana , group=pronunciation (French: ''La Louisiane'') is a state in the Deep South and South Central regions of the United States. It is the 20th-smallest by area and the 25th most populous of the 50 U.S. states. Louisiana is borde ...
(but for the southeast) and much of northern Mississippi
Mississippi () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States, bordered to the north by Tennessee; to the east by Alabama; to the south by the Gulf of Mexico; to the southwest by Louisiana; and to the northwest by Arkansas. Miss ...
, Alabama
(We dare defend our rights)
, anthem = "Alabama"
, image_map = Alabama in United States.svg
, seat = Montgomery
, LargestCity = Huntsville
, LargestCounty = Baldwin County
, LargestMetro = Greater Birmingham
, area_total_km2 = 135,765 ...
, Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States
Georgia may also refer to:
Places
Historical states and entities
* Related to the ...
and South Carolina
)'' Animis opibusque parati'' ( for, , Latin, Prepared in mind and resources, links=no)
, anthem = " Carolina";" South Carolina On My Mind"
, Former = Province of South Carolina
, seat = Columbia
, LargestCity = Charleston
, LargestMetro = ...
north to Illinois
Illinois ( ) is a state in the Midwestern United States. Its largest metropolitan areas include the Chicago metropolitan area, and the Metro East section, of Greater St. Louis. Other smaller metropolitan areas include, Peoria and Rockf ...
, Indiana
Indiana () is a U.S. state in the Midwestern United States. It is the 38th-largest by area and the 17th-most populous of the 50 States. Its capital and largest city is Indianapolis. Indiana was admitted to the United States as the 19th s ...
, Ohio
Ohio () is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States. Of the fifty U.S. states, it is the 34th-largest by area, and with a population of nearly 11.8 million, is the seventh-most populous and tenth-most densely populated. The sta ...
and southern Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania (; ( Pennsylvania Dutch: )), officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state spanning the Mid-Atlantic, Northeastern, Appalachian, and Great Lakes regions of the United States. It borders Delaware to its southeast, ...
.[ Very rarely, these birds have turned up in ]Florida
Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, and to ...
(in times of exceptional irruption) and, as a vagrant, even the Bermudas.[ They are found also by winter and in migration in much of the east coast of the United States, from the ]Outer Banks
The Outer Banks (frequently abbreviated OBX) are a string of barrier islands and spits off the coast of North Carolina and southeastern Virginia, on the east coast of the United States. They line most of the North Carolina coastline, separating ...
in North Carolina
North Carolina () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States. The state is the 28th largest and 9th-most populous of the United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, Georgia and ...
, broadly in eastern Pennsylvania and almost anywhere in Delaware
Delaware ( ) is a state in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, bordering Maryland to its south and west; Pennsylvania to its north; and New Jersey and the Atlantic Ocean to its east. The state takes its name from the adjacent Del ...
or New Jersey
New Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware ...
, southeastern New York (including New York City
New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the most densely populated major city in the Un ...
) and north to much of southern New England
New England is a region comprising six states in the Northeastern United States: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York (state), New York to the west and by the Can ...
including almost all of Connecticut
Connecticut () is the southernmost state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It is bordered by Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York to the west, and Long Island Sound to the south. Its capita ...
, Massachusetts
Massachusetts (Massachusett: ''Muhsachuweesut Massachusett_writing_systems.html" ;"title="nowiki/> məhswatʃəwiːsət.html" ;"title="Massachusett writing systems">məhswatʃəwiːsət">Massachusett writing systems">məhswatʃəwiːsət'' En ...
and Rhode Island
Rhode Island (, like ''road'') is a state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It is the smallest U.S. state by area and the seventh-least populous, with slightly fewer than 1.1 million residents as of 2020, but it ...
as well as southern New Hampshire
New Hampshire is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Gulf of Maine to the east, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the nor ...
.[
]
Habitat
Optimal habitat tends towards access to open spaces with short vegetation and abundant prey and wooded cover for roosting and nesting.[Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N., Bauer, K. M., & Bezzel, E. (1980). ''Handbuch der vögel mitteleuropas''. Aula, Wiesbaden.] In terms of attitudinal range, this species may live at many elevations with no strong altitudinal preferences noted, although they tend to be absent above the montane tree line
The tree line is the edge of the habitat at which trees are capable of growing. It is found at high elevations and high latitudes. Beyond the tree line, trees cannot tolerate the environmental conditions (usually cold temperatures, extreme snow ...
. The species has been recorded exceptionally nesting at above sea level in Kashmir.[Shelley, B.A.G. (1895). ''The nesting of the Long-eared Owl (Asio otus) in India''. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 10: 149.] Long-eared owls tend to inhabit usually rather open landscapes with groups of trees, hedge
A hedge or hedgerow is a line of closely spaced shrubs and sometimes trees, planted and trained to form a barrier or to mark the boundary of an area, such as between neighbouring properties. Hedges that are used to separate a road from adjoin ...
s or small woods, as well as pasture
Pasture (from the Latin ''pastus'', past participle of ''pascere'', "to feed") is land used for grazing. Pasture lands in the narrow sense are enclosed tracts of farmland, grazed by domesticated livestock, such as horses, cattle, sheep, or sw ...
land with rows of trees and bushes, any type of forest
A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' ...
with clearings, forest edges, semi-open taiga forest, swampy areas and bogs, especially those with willow
Willows, also called sallows and osiers, from the genus ''Salix'', comprise around 400 speciesMabberley, D.J. 1997. The Plant Book, Cambridge University Press #2: Cambridge. of typically deciduous trees and shrubs, found primarily on moist so ...
s, alder
Alders are trees comprising the genus ''Alnus'' in the birch family Betulaceae. The genus comprises about 35 species of monoecious trees and shrubs, a few reaching a large size, distributed throughout the north temperate zone with a few sp ...
and poplars, orchard
An orchard is an intentional plantation of trees or shrubs that is maintained for food production. Orchards comprise fruit- or nut-producing trees which are generally grown for commercial production. Orchards are also sometimes a feature of ...
s with old fruit tree
A fruit tree is a tree which bears fruit that is consumed or used by animals and humans — all trees that are flowering plants produce fruit, which are the ripened ovaries of flowers containing one or more seeds. In horticultural usage, t ...
s, parks, cemeteries with trees and bushes, even garden
A garden is a planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the cultivation, display, and enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature. The single feature identifying even the wildest wild garden is ''control''. The garden can incorporate bot ...
s and timbered areas in village
A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet but smaller than a town (although the word is often used to describe both hamlets and smaller towns), with a population typically ranging from a few hundred ...
s, town
A town is a human settlement. Towns are generally larger than villages and smaller than cities, though the criteria to distinguish between them vary considerably in different parts of the world.
Origin and use
The word "town" shares an ori ...
s or cities
A city is a human settlement of notable size.Goodall, B. (1987) ''The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography''. London: Penguin.Kuper, A. and Kuper, J., eds (1996) ''The Social Science Encyclopedia''. 2nd edition. London: Routledge. It can be def ...
.[ In many parts of the world, including China, ]Israel
Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
and the American southwest
The Southwestern United States, also known as the American Southwest or simply the Southwest, is a geographic and cultural region of the United States that generally includes Arizona, New Mexico, and adjacent portions of California, Colorado ...
, long-eared owls have shown the ability to adapt to deserts, though more commonly semi-desert, and may nest and roost in available oases and adapting to hunt prey over the open desert ground, whether it is sand
Sand is a granular material composed of finely divided mineral particles. Sand has various compositions but is defined by its grain size. Sand grains are smaller than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can also refer to a textural class o ...
y or more rocky
''Rocky'' is a 1976 American sports drama film directed by John G. Avildsen and written by and starring Sylvester Stallone. It is the first installment in the ''Rocky'' franchise and stars Talia Shire, Burt Young, Carl Weathers, and Burge ...
.[Shao, M., & Liu, N. (2006). ''The diet of the Long-eared Owls, Asio otus, in the desert of northwest China''. Journal of arid environments, 65(4), 673-676.][Kotler, B. P. (1985). ''Owl predation on desert rodents which differ in morphology and behavior''. Journal of Mammalogy, 66(4), 824-828.][Leader, Z., Yom-Tov, Y., & Motro, U. (2008). ''Diet of the long-eared owl in the northern and central Negev Desert, Israel''. The Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 120(3), 641-646.][Stophlet, J. J. (1959). ''Nesting concentration of long-eared owls in Cochise County, Arizona''. The Wilson Bulletin, 71(1), 97-99.] The preferred habitat in Great Britain
Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the largest European island and the ninth-largest island in the world. It i ...
was found to consist most regularly (amongst 200 nests) of small tree plantation
A plantation is an agricultural estate, generally centered on a plantation house, meant for farming that specializes in cash crops, usually mainly planted with a single crop, with perhaps ancillary areas for vegetables for eating and so on. The ...
s, copses or scattered trees on moorlands, heath
A heath () is a shrubland habitat found mainly on free-draining infertile, acidic soils and characterised by open, low-growing woody vegetation. Moorland is generally related to high-ground heaths with—especially in Great Britain—a cooler a ...
or mosses (33%), followed by blocks of forest
A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' ...
(24.5%), smaller plantations, shelterbelts or hedgerows in various agricultural areas (24%) and scrub or wooded clumps near the coast
The coast, also known as the coastline or seashore, is defined as the area where land meets the ocean, or as a line that forms the boundary between the land and the coastline. The Earth has around of coastline. Coasts are important zones in ...
and in wetland
A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded or saturated by water, either permanently (for years or decades) or seasonally (for weeks or months). Flooding results in oxygen-free (anoxic) processes prevailing, especially in the soils. The p ...
s (15%).[ All nests in Finland in a study were no more than from cultivated land and only occurred on margins of larger woods or forests.][ Ecological compensation areas (i.e. habitat for wildlife on privately owned farmland) in Switzerland did provide habitat for long-eared owls but it was found that ]vole
Voles are small rodents that are relatives of lemmings and hamsters, but with a stouter body; a longer, hairy tail; a slightly rounder head; smaller eyes and ears; and differently formed molars (high-crowned with angular cusps instead of lo ...
s were more extensively hunted in mowed sections of the lands rather than the more densely vegetated areas where voles were most abundant. This indicates habitat (in particular open ground habitat) is more important to the predators than prey densities, at least locally.[Aschwanden, J., Birrer, S., & Jenni, L. (2005). ''Are ecological compensation areas attractive hunting sites for common kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) and long-eared owls (Asio otus)?'' Journal of Ornithology, 146(3), 279-286.] In Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
, when compared to the little owl (''Athene noctua''), long-eared owls were more likely to be found in low disturbance areas where forest transitioned into plantations and to areas with a relatively low human presence.[Martínez, J. A., & Zuberogoitia, I. (2004). ''Habitat preferences for Long-eared Owls Asio otus and Little Owls Athene noctua in semi-arid environments at three spatial scales''. Bird Study, 51(2), 163-169.] A preference by long-eared owls for stands of conifers has been noted in many American studies.[Craighead, J. J., & Craighead, F. C. (1969). ''Hawks, owls, and wildlife''. Stackpole Books.] In Ontario
Ontario ( ; ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada.Ontario is located in the geographic eastern half of Canada, but it has historically and politically been considered to be part of Central Canada. Located in Central C ...
, the species breeds most often in dense conifer stands of wood and reforestation groves that are often somewhat wet, thence less often in mixed or deciduous areas.[Peck, G. K., & James, R. D. (1983). ''Breeding birds of Ontario: nidiology and distribution (Vol. 1)''. ROM.] A similar association with conifers was observed aseasonally in Michigan
Michigan () is a U.S. state, state in the Great Lakes region, Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest, upper Midwestern United States. With a population of nearly 10.12 million and an area of nearly , Michigan is the List of U.S. states and ...
.[ In ]North Dakota
North Dakota () is a U.S. state in the Upper Midwest, named after the indigenous Dakota Sioux. North Dakota is bordered by the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba to the north and by the U.S. states of Minnesota to the east, So ...
, dense thickets of small trees and brushy margins of more extensive forest tracts were the main habitat for these owls.[Stewart, R.E. (1975). ''Breeding birds of North Dakota''. Tri-College Center for Environmental Studies.] In western areas where mixed woodlands may occur, however, deciduous stands may attract wintering owls, providing they have heavy growths of climbing vines.[Bent, A. C. (1938). ''Life histories of North American birds of prey, part 2''. US National Mus. Bull, 170.] In the Sierra Nevadas, long-eared owls are often found in riparian zone
A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between land and a river or stream. Riparian is also the proper nomenclature for one of the terrestrial biomes of the Earth. Plant habitats and communities along the river margins and banks a ...
of mixed woods around oak
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus ''Quercus'' (; Latin "oak tree") of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 500 extant species of oaks. The common name "oak" also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably ''L ...
s and ponderosa pine
''Pinus ponderosa'', commonly known as the ponderosa pine, bull pine, blackjack pine, western yellow-pine, or filipinus pine is a very large pine tree species of variable habitat native to mountainous regions of western North America. It is the ...
s (''Pinus ponderosa'').[Verner, J., & Boss, A. S. (1980). ''California wildlife and their habitats: western Sierra Nevada''. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-37. Berkeley, CA: Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Exp. Stn., Forest Service, US Department of Agriculture: 439 p, 37.] Analysis from Oregon
Oregon () is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington, while the Snake River delineates much of its eastern boundary with Idaho. T ...
has shown that forest management Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, protection, and forest regulation. This includes management fo ...
had no discernable effect on long-eared owls, indicating that they are not truly forest owls but clearances of riparian vegetation, conversion of foraging areas to agricultural fields and reforestation of open habitats did reduce local numbers.[Holt, D. W. (1997). ''THE LONG-EARED OWL (ASIO OTUS) AND FOREST MANAGEMENT''. J. Raptor Res, 31(2), 175-186.] Despite being adaptable to both very cold areas, including the taiga
Taiga (; rus, тайга́, p=tɐjˈɡa; relates to Mongolic and Turkic languages), generally referred to in North America as a boreal forest or snow forest, is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruc ...
and scarcely Subarctic, and quite warm areas, including drier and/or arid
A region is arid when it severely lacks available water, to the extent of hindering or preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life. Regions with arid climates tend to lack vegetation and are called xeric or desertic. Most ...
parts of the subtropic
The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical and climate zones to the north and south of the tropics. Geographically part of the temperate zones of both hemispheres, they cover the middle latitudes from to approximately 35° north and ...
s, the long-eared owl is largely confined to temperate zones
In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout t ...
of the north and is less climatically adaptable than the short-eared owl, with the latter species acclimating to nearly all climates and making its homes both in the Arctic
The Arctic ( or ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Canada (Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut), Danish Realm (Greenland), Finland, Iceland, N ...
and the tropics
The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in
the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referr ...
whether wet and dry so long as open habitats are available.[Nijman, V. (2005). ''Survey on birds of prey and owls (Falconiformes and Strigiformes) on Java sea islands: correction and additions''. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, 53(2), 287-288.][Reid, D. G., Doyle, F. I., Kenney, A. J., & Krebs, C. J. (2012). ''Some observations of Short-eared Owl, Asio flammeus, ecology on arctic tundra, Yukon, Canada''. The Canadian Field-Naturalist, 125(4), 307-315.]
Behaviour
Long-eared owls are more or less strictly nocturnal in activity. Usually activity for the species commences at dusk.[ After nightfall long-eared owls in ]Idaho
Idaho ( ) is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. To the north, it shares a small portion of the Canada–United States border with the province of British Columbia. It borders the states of Montana and Wyomi ...
were least active from 8-10 pm and from 5-6 am, while the hours around 10-12 pm and 3-5 am were often the peak times of activity.[Craig, E. H., Craig, T. H., & Powers, L. R. (1988). ''Activity patterns and home-range use of nesting long-eared owls''. The Wilson Bulletin, 204-213.] When living relatively close to the Arctic
The Arctic ( or ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Canada (Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut), Danish Realm (Greenland), Finland, Iceland, N ...
, long-eared owls may be forced to forage during daylight as no full nightfall may occur during summer.[Armstrong, E. A. (1954). ''The behaviour of birds in continuous daylight''. Ibis, 96(1), 1-30.] When flying by day, long-eared owls are often mobbed by diurnal birds such as corvid
Corvidae is a cosmopolitan family of oscine passerine birds that contains the crows, ravens, rooks, jackdaws, jays, magpies, treepies, choughs, and nutcrackers. In colloquial English, they are known as the crow family or corvids. Currently, ...
s and other birds of prey
Birds of prey or predatory birds, also known as raptors, are hypercarnivorous bird species that actively hunt and feed on other vertebrates (mainly mammals, reptiles and other smaller birds). In addition to speed and strength, these predat ...
.[ Often long-eared owls will discharge a fairly large amount of pellets and drop them below regular day roosts. Unlike most other owls, the species has no territorial hunting ground.][ In Switzerland, 14 long-eared owls examined using radiotelemetry were found to have an average home range of . In the study, they required fields along borders of woodlands, avoiding completely treeless areas more so than they were prevalent in the environment.][Henrioux, F. (2000). ''Home range and habitat use by the Long-eared Owl in northwestern Switzerland''. Journal of Raptor Research, 34(2), 93-101.] In the České Budějovice
České Budějovice (; german: Budweis ) is a city in the South Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 93,000 inhabitants. It is located in the valley of the Vltava River, at its confluence with the Malše.
České Budějovice is t ...
area of Czech Republic
The Czech Republic, or simply Czechia, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Historically known as Bohemia, it is bordered by Austria to the south, Germany to the west, Poland to the northeast, and Slovakia to the southeast. The ...
, 9 radiotagged owls were studied. Nearly equal numbers were found in suburban and urban areas, and urban ones used developed areas for more than 50% of their nocturnal activity while suburban ones used developed areas for less than half of their activities. Similar habitats were favored by both urban and suburban owls but urban owls had to range wider to avoid heavy human activity and access city parks and so had larger average ranges, vs , while suburban ones had easier access to meadows and stands of woods.[Lövy, M., & Riegert, J. (2013). ''Home range and land use of urban long-eared owls''. The Condor, 115(3), 551-557.]
Migration
Out of roughly 19 regular species of owl in North America and 13 regular species of owl in Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located entirel ...
, the long-eared owl is classed as one of the five in both continents to be truly migratory, moving annually in at least some areas and in some numbers from summer to winter grounds and back whether or not it is an irruptive year.[Russell, R. W., Dunne, P., Sutton, C., & Kerlinger, P. (1991). ''A visual study of migrating owls at Cape May Point, New Jersey''. The Condor, 93(1), 55-61.] Northern populations are migratory, showing a strong tendency to wander south in autumn. Some normally young bird from central Europe
Central Europe is an area of Europe between Western Europe and Eastern Europe, based on a common historical, social and cultural identity. The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) between Catholicism and Protestantism significantly shaped the a ...
migrate southwest at distances of up to more than . Central European adults are less migratory, at most merely wandering in winter.[ Long-eared owls that breed ]Scandinavia
Scandinavia; Sámi languages: /. ( ) is a subregion in Northern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its constituent peoples. In English usage, ''Scandinavia'' most commonly refers to Denmark, Norway, and Swe ...
generally migrate to nearly anywhere in Europe, from Great Britain
Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the largest European island and the ninth-largest island in the world. It i ...
to Southeast Europe
Southeast Europe or Southeastern Europe (SEE) is a geographical subregion of Europe, consisting primarily of the Balkans. Sovereign states and territories that are included in the region are Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia (a ...
, though some may disperse as far as north Africa
North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
or Asia Minor
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
.[Lundberg, A. (1979). ''Residency, migration and a compromise: adaptations to nest-site scarcity and food specialization in three Fennoscandian owl species''. Oecologia, 41(3), 273-281.] In Europe, males and females seem to differ slightly in migratory behaviour. Long-eared owls wintering in Denmark
)
, song = ( en, "King Christian stood by the lofty mast")
, song_type = National and royal anthem
, image_map = EU-Denmark.svg
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of Denmark
, establish ...
were found to be heavily biased towards females, also there is a bias towards females in winter surveys in other areas such as southern Sweden. At 10 wintering sites in Europe, females were 36% more common than males. The hypothesis posited by those that studied the owls in Denmark is that females face a higher rate of predation by larger birds of prey and may distribute away from Fennoscandia where densities are high of those predators and to areas that show low densities of these predators. Another, non-exclusive, theory is that they may be avoiding areas with deep snow that may inhibit prey capture.[ Supporting data that male long-eared owls winter further north than females was gathered in southern ]Norway
Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe, the mainland territory of which comprises the western and northernmost portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the ...
, where the recovery of dead owls (from car or powerline collisions) of the species encountered in late fall throughout winter, males were 45% more common than females.[Overskaug, K., & Kristiansen, E. (1994). ''Sex ratio of accidentally killed Long‐eared Owls Asio otus in Norway''. Ringing & Migration, 15(2), 104-106.] On evidence, many of the females that vacate Norway
Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe, the mainland territory of which comprises the western and northernmost portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the ...
and even Fennoscandia come to winter in Great Britain
Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the largest European island and the ninth-largest island in the world. It i ...
(the female migrants here being up to 3.5 times more common during winter than male migrants in one study).[ Two birds in ringing studies that were recorded in late winter in ]Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
were observed to return for the summer to central Russia (near Yaroslavl
Yaroslavl ( rus, Ярослáвль, p=jɪrɐˈsɫavlʲ) is a city and the administrative center of Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia, located northeast of Moscow. The historic part of the city is a World Heritage Site, and is located at the confluenc ...
, away) and to eastern Russia (near Kazan
Kazan ( ; rus, Казань, p=kɐˈzanʲ; tt-Cyrl, Казан, ''Qazan'', IPA: ɑzan is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Tatarstan in Russia. The city lies at the confluence of the Volga and the Kazanka rivers, covering an ...
, away).[ Birds that breed in ]central Asia
Central Asia, also known as Middle Asia, is a subregion, region of Asia that stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to western China and Mongolia in the east, and from Afghanistan and Iran in the south to Russia in the north. It includes t ...
have been recorded to winter in a wide variety of locales, including the Egyptian Nile valley, Pakistan
Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 243 million people, and has the world's second-lar ...
, northern India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
and southern China.[ In North America, migrants generally sourced from ]Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
and the Upper Midwest
The Upper Midwest is a region in the northern portion of the U.S. Census Bureau's Midwestern United States. It is largely a sub-region of the Midwest. Although the exact boundaries are not uniformly agreed-upon, the region is defined as referring ...
winter almost anywhere in the remaining United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
, however they will irruptively migrate as far as Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States
Georgia may also refer to:
Places
Historical states and entities
* Related to the ...
and several areas of Mexico
Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
and seldom in Florida
Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, and to ...
.[ Typically the northern limit of the wintering range fall up to the ]Okanagan Valley
The Okanagan ( ), also known as the Okanagan Valley and sometimes as the Okanagan Country, is a region in the Canadian province of British Columbia defined by the basin of Okanagan Lake and the Canadian portion of the Okanagan River. It is p ...
of British Columbia
British Columbia (commonly abbreviated as BC) is the westernmost province of Canada, situated between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. It has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that include rocky coastlines, sandy beaches, ...
, the southern reaches of the Upper Midwest
The Upper Midwest is a region in the northern portion of the U.S. Census Bureau's Midwestern United States. It is largely a sub-region of the Midwest. Although the exact boundaries are not uniformly agreed-upon, the region is defined as referring ...
and central New England
New England is a region comprising six states in the Northeastern United States: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York (state), New York to the west and by the Can ...
.[ Spring migration was tracked along with ]northern saw-whet owl
The northern saw-whet owl (''Aegolius acadicus'') is a species of small owl in the family Strigidae. The species is native to North America. Saw-whet owls of the genus ''Aegolius'' are some of the smallest owl species in North America. They can ...
s (''Aegolius acadius'') as they migrated through Oswego County, New York via mist net
Mist nets are used by hunters and poachers, but also by ornithologists and chiropterologists to capture wild birds and bats for banding or other research projects. Mist nets are typically made of nylon or polyester mesh suspended between two ...
s, with the saw-whet considerably outnumbering long-eared owls. Here, migration of long-eared owl was between March 21 and April 14 and, unlike the saw-whets, the long-eared owl migration does not appear to be effected as extensively by weather conditions.[Slack, R. S., Slack, C. B., Roberts, R. N., & Emord, D. E. (1987). ''Spring migration of long-eared owls and northern saw-whet owls at Nine Mile Point, New York''. The Wilson Bulletin, 480-485.] Long-eared owls are 19.5% of owls (or 197 total owls) recorded migrating through Cape May Point in fall (against a majority, 60.6%, being saw-whet owls), with 26.1% of the specimens from the species caught in the mist nets being adults. More than 90% of long-eared owls migrate between mid-October and late November, with the immatures migrating earlier, 52.1% of juveniles having passed through in October whereas only 9.4% of adults migrated in the month. Cape May studies also indicated that 58.87% of long-eared owls were caught in the dark before dawn rather than other times of night.[Duffy, K., & Kerlinger, P. (1992). ''Autumn owl migration at Cape May Point, New Jersey''. The Wilson Bulletin, 312-320.] Based on evidence from Cape May, migrating long-eared owls tend to fly higher above the ground than do migrating saw-whet and barn owls but not as high as the short-eared owl, with the latter owl often able to avoid mist net
Mist nets are used by hunters and poachers, but also by ornithologists and chiropterologists to capture wild birds and bats for banding or other research projects. Mist nets are typically made of nylon or polyester mesh suspended between two ...
s apparently via its flying height while moving through.[ Per a study in Idaho, 7 radio-tagged owls actually migrating both north, north of their respective nesting sites, and to higher elevations after the breeding season (in many cases possibly to exploit displaced rodents in recently logged areas).][Ulmschneider, H. (1990). ''Post-nesting ecology of the Long-eared Owl (Asio otus) in southwestern Idaho''.]
The long-eared owl has the peculiar ability to increase populations and then disperse in nearly multi-directional movements during good years for prey numbers. Banding records across North America show highly erratic numbers and movements across the continent of North America with unpredictable peak numbers of migrants in completely different years respectively for the states of Wisconsin
Wisconsin () is a state in the upper Midwestern United States. Wisconsin is the 25th-largest state by total area and the 20th-most populous. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake M ...
, Michigan
Michigan () is a U.S. state, state in the Great Lakes region, Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest, upper Midwestern United States. With a population of nearly 10.12 million and an area of nearly , Michigan is the List of U.S. states and ...
, New York and New Jersey
New Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware ...
.[Houston, C. S. (2005). ''Long-eared Owls, Asio otus: A review of North American banding''. The Canadian Field-Naturalist, 119(3), 395-402.] Therefore, the species is sometimes considered “nomadic” despite many populations of the species being consistent annual migrants. Similar tendency towards so-called “nomadism” is shared by other widespread raptors semi-specialized to hunting vole
Voles are small rodents that are relatives of lemmings and hamsters, but with a stouter body; a longer, hairy tail; a slightly rounder head; smaller eyes and ears; and differently formed molars (high-crowned with angular cusps instead of lo ...
s over open ground, such as short-eared owl
The short-eared owl (''Asio flammeus'') is a widespread grassland species in the family Strigidae. Owls belonging to genus ''Asio'' are known as the eared owls, as they have tufts of feathers resembling mammalian ears. These "ear" tufts may or ...
s and hen harrier
The hen harrier (''Circus cyaneus'') is a bird of prey. It breeds in Eurasia. The term "hen harrier" refers to its former habit of preying on free-ranging fowl.
It migrates to more southerly areas in winter. Eurasian birds move to southern Eur ...
s (''Circus cyaneus'').[ These erratic movements and peaks and ebbs of northern populations has lent to descriptions of the long-eared owl as “ irruptive”, however it generally moves in quite different ways from owls largely endemic to the ]taiga
Taiga (; rus, тайга́, p=tɐjˈɡa; relates to Mongolic and Turkic languages), generally referred to in North America as a boreal forest or snow forest, is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruc ...
(or tundra
In physical geography, tundra () is a type of biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons. The term ''tundra'' comes through Russian (') from the Kildin Sámi word (') meaning "uplands", "treeless mou ...
), which are more traditionally irruptive in that they tend to migrate little or not at all when prey remain ample in their native home range but then move south in mass when prey populations crash. Long-eared owls, unlike these irruptive northern owls, often migrate from the northern areas regardless of conditions. However, like the northern irruptive owls, long-eared owls tend to appear in unprecedented numbers to the south when a peak prey year is followed by a winter during which prey population crashes. In North America, the migratory habits of long-eared owls are strongly mirrored by those of northern saw-whet owl
The northern saw-whet owl (''Aegolius acadicus'') is a species of small owl in the family Strigidae. The species is native to North America. Saw-whet owls of the genus ''Aegolius'' are some of the smallest owl species in North America. They can ...
s.[Cheveau, M., Drapeau, P., Imbeau, L., & Bergeron, Y. (2004). ''Owl winter irruptions as an indicator of small mammal population cycles in the boreal forest of eastern North America''. Oikos, 107(1), 190-198.][Newton, I. (2002). ''Population limitation in Holarctic owls''. Ecology and conservation of owls, 3-29.] Study of banding records in Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan ( ; ) is a province in western Canada, bordered on the west by Alberta, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by Manitoba, to the northeast by Nunavut, and on the south by the U.S. states of Montana and North Dak ...
show that the long-eared owl Canadian populations may be considered more truly irruptive species both as a breeder and migrant in that only appears in numbers during peak vole years, with large numbers only in 4 of 44 banding years. During 7 low years, the long-eared owls of Saskatchewan seemed to disappear altogether from much of the province. Peak years also coincided often with snowshoe hare
The snowshoe hare (''Lepus americanus''), also called the varying hare or snowshoe rabbit, is a species of hare found in North America. It has the name "snowshoe" because of the large size of its hind feet. The animal's feet prevent it from sin ...
(''Lepus americanus'') peaks, possibly due to lessened competition (as the larger owls favored prey is locally the hare) and interspecific predation by great horned owl
The great horned owl (''Bubo virginianus''), also known as the tiger owl (originally derived from early naturalists' description as the "winged tiger" or "tiger of the air"), or the hoot owl, is a large owl native to the Americas. It is an extre ...
s.[ The phenomena of movements that seem to be nomadic or purportedly irruptive in nature may occur as well in Europe, though given the species’ denser population in general there in comparison to North America may result in less noticeable wide variations in numbers.][ Years with irruptive numbers of long-eared owls have been noted in the ]British Isles
The British Isles are a group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-western coast of continental Europe, consisting of the islands of Great Britain, Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Inner and Outer Hebrides, the Northern Isles, ...
when prey peaks then crashes back in Scandinavia, resulting in much larger numbers of migrant long-eared owls into the islands than normal, as well as concurrently large numbers of short-eared owls and harriers.[Davenport, D. L. (1982). ''Influxes into Britain of hen harriers, long-eared owls and short-eared owls in winter 1978/79''. British Birds, 75, 309-316.] In southern Finland
Finland ( fi, Suomi ; sv, Finland ), officially the Republic of Finland (; ), is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It shares land borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of B ...
during a peak prey year followed by a prey crash, a very large number of long-eared owls were detected and were seen to be likely food stressed, as several were foraging actively during daylight despite the extensive nighttime hours during the season.[Soikkeli, M. (1964). ''Uber das Uberwintern und die Nahrung der Waldohreule (Asio otus) in siidwestfinnland 1962/63''. Ornis Fennica, 31, 37-40.]
Social and roosting behavior
During daytime, long-eared owls tends to roost in an upright position on a branch, not infrequently close to the trunk, oftentimes within dense foliage. In winter, the long-eared owl often stays close to the same tree or grove of trees (i.e. in and around parks, large gardens, or cemeteries). Usually, when approached, the owl freezes with its body stiffly upright, eyes closed to narrow slits and ear tufts erect. This is called the “tall-thin position” and is common to at least a couple dozen species of typical owl. If approached closed, the owls will alternately open and close their eyes (apparently having stirred but trying to fool potential predators into thinking the owl is still at rest), finally lowering ear tufts, fluffing body plumage and flying to another roost.[ Unlike most owls, which show a tendency towards territorial behavior on a fixed range year-around when possible, long-eared owls in the non-breeding season may form aggregations of owls while roosting. Such groupings may include 6 to 50 owls, with a European record of about 150 owls at a single roost.][ Even other migratory owls in the temperate zone do not tolerate each other as closely as do long-eared owls, with short-eared owls seemingly only forming aggregations when food supplies are exceptionally high, while social roosting in long-eared owls seems to occur regardless of local prey numbers.][Schneider, K. J. (2003). ''The status and ecology of the short-eared owl (Asio flammeus) in New York State''. The Kingbird, 53, 313-330.] Long-eared owls tend to roost in the depths of the "darkest stands of trees" in order to conceal their presence, though they prefer being close to forested edge to allow access to hunting over more open ground.[ A study in the ]New Jersey Meadowlands
New Jersey Meadowlands, also known as the Hackensack Meadowlands after the primary river flowing through it, is a general name for the large ecosystem of wetlands in northeastern New Jersey in the United States, a few miles to the west of ...
area showed that roosting owls had a strong fidelity for certain trees, particularly conifers such as cedar
Cedar may refer to:
Trees and plants
*''Cedrus'', common English name cedar, an Old-World genus of coniferous trees in the plant family Pinaceae
*Cedar (plant), a list of trees and plants known as cedar
Places United States
* Cedar, Arizona
* ...
s where the main truck is large obscured from view and a grouping of at least 2-3 closely clumped trees occurs. Roost height in the New Jersey study was at or occasionally higher. In New Jersey, different roosts were preferred each year and in the local heavily modified environment, the owls become partially habituated to human activities. However, approach at closer than away usually caused them to flush. Departure of owls for nighttime hunting would generally occur between 40 and 49 minutes after sundown.[ Studies in the ]Moscow
Moscow ( , US chiefly ; rus, links=no, Москва, r=Moskva, p=mɐskˈva, a=Москва.ogg) is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 13.0 millio ...
region of wintering roosts were done over 10 years, with 12 communal and 14 solitary roosts found. The communal roosts included up to 16 individuals per winter, with a mean of 9.9. Overall, the average in Moscow per roost site was 2.1 owls. Vole
Voles are small rodents that are relatives of lemmings and hamsters, but with a stouter body; a longer, hairy tail; a slightly rounder head; smaller eyes and ears; and differently formed molars (high-crowned with angular cusps instead of lo ...
numbers the preceding year were likely the causes of numeric variations in years here while wind and snow avoidance were key in characteristics of roost sites.[Sharikov, A. V., Makarova, T. V., & Ganova, E. V. (2014). ''Long-term dynamics of Long-eared Owls Asio otus at a northern winter roost in European Russia''. Ardea, 101(2), 171-177.] Extraordinarily large roosts were the norm in a study in Stavropol
Stavropol (; rus, Ставрополь, p=ˈstavrəpəlʲ) is a city and the administrative centre of Stavropol Krai, Russia. As of the 2021 Census, its population was 547,820, making it one of Russia's fastest growing cities.
It was known as ...
, Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and encompassing one-eig ...
, where the general roost area could host from 80 to 150 individuals each winter over 4 years, with 93.7% of the roosts located in coniferous trees.[Makarova, T., & Sharikov, A. (2015). ''Winter roost place selection of Long-eared Owls in European Russia''. J. Raptor Res, 49, 333-336.] In Milan
Milan ( , , Lombard: ; it, Milano ) is a city in northern Italy, capital of Lombardy, and the second-most populous city proper in Italy after Rome. The city proper has a population of about 1.4 million, while its metropolitan city h ...
, Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
, from 2 to 76 long-eared owls were observed per urban roost site. Here, nighttime observation showed that owls individually would depart the roost at peak during the darkest part of nighttime. A majority of the Milan roosting owls did not fly toward urban areas instead flying to suburban fields and forest where prey is more easily encountered.[ The reason for roosting in aggregations seems to be at least in part to mitigate predation risks.][
]
Dietary biology
Long-eared owls may divide their hunting into phases, the first stopping around midnight, the second beginning some point after midnight and ending an hour before sunrise.[ While hunting, they tend focuses on the edge of woodlands, hedgerows and open spaces with rough grassland, and over young trees and open ground of all kinds. They hunt mainly on the wing, flying low and fairly slowly, often being quite low to ground, i.e. only around .][ More often than visually finding their prey, it is thought that long-eared owls most often audibly detect the rustling of their intended food. In lab settings, long-eared owls were considerably more skilled at finding mice by sound in more or less complete darkness than tawny and ]barred owl
The barred owl (''Strix varia''), also known as the northern barred owl, striped owl or, more informally, hoot owl, is a North American large species of owl. A member of the true owl family, Strigidae, they belong to the genus '' Strix'', whic ...
s (''Strix varia''), and in some American experiments even outclassed the auditorily-acute barn owls in this regard.[Marti, C. D. (1974). ''Feeding ecology of four sympatric owls''. The Condor, 76(1), 45-61.][Dice, L. R. (1945). ''Minimum intensities of illumination under which owls can find dead prey by sight''. The American Naturalist, 79(784), 385-416.] Once prey is spotted, the long-eared owl's flight suddenly stalls, then they quickly drop with talons spread to pounce on prey that is perceived, or especially, that comes out into the open.[ Habitat may be perhaps even more key than prey numbers to the selection of hunting grounds. Often when prey numbers are more ample in timbered areas nearer the roost or rich ]marsh
A marsh is a wetland that is dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant species.Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 497 p Marshes can often be found a ...
y areas in the vicinity, the long-eared owls will still often come to more prey-poor areas such as old fields so that they can detect prey on open ground.[Getz, L. L. (1961) ''Hunting areas of the long-eared owl''. The Wilson Bulletin, 79-82.] The footspan of a long-eared owl, including claws, reaches on average in males and females, respectively, which would be large for a diurnal bird of prey but is quite small for an owl of its size, given the physiological differences in the way different birds of prey tend to kill their prey. While acciptrid raptors tend to kill by stabbing with their talons through vital organs, owls are more likely to constrict their prey to death, so tend to have proportionately larger, more robust feet.[Fowler, D. W., Freedman, E. A., & Scannella, J. B. (2009). ''Predatory functional morphology in raptors: interdigital variation in talon size is related to prey restraint and immobilisation technique''. PLOS ONE, 4(11), e7999.][Ward, A. B., Weigl, P. D., & Conroy, R. M. (2002). ''Functional morphology of raptor hindlimbs: implications for resource partitioning''. The Auk, 119(4), 1052-1063.] In other medium-sized owls, the footspan in tawny owls and barn owls respectively averages in between the sexes (notably footspan seems to be a fairly reliable predictor of body mass of an owl as well).[ Prey capture by long-eared owls was studied and compared to ]tawny owl
The tawny owl (''Strix aluco''), also called the brown owl, is commonly found in woodlands across Europe to western Siberia, and has seven recognized subspecies. It is a stocky, medium-sized owl, whose underparts are pale with dark streaks, a ...
s in a European experiment. The two owl species caught mammals and beetles caught in similar ways but the long-eared owls shied away from flying sparrows and would only capture the sparrows when they perched (though the tawny did not avoid flying sparrows, it too would only capture the prey when perched). Long-eared owls either disregarded or killed but did not eat amphibians, while tawny owls did catch and eat amphibians when they were available. Occasionally the tawny owls would attack fish whilst one long-eared owl caught but did not eat a fish. The European study further revealed that several owls of different species ate bits of plant and did not appear to do so out of food deprivation or hunger.[Räber, H. (1949). ''Das Verhalten gefangener Waldohreulen (Asio otus otus) und Waldkäuze (Strix aluco aluco) zur Beute''. Behaviour, 1-95.]
Taken as whole, the global population of long-eared owls may appear to have a widely varying diet. One study accrued information from 312 studies from around the species’ range. In total 478 prey species were found to be described, of which 180 were mammal species, 191 were bird
Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweig ...
species, 83 were assorted invertebrate
Invertebrates are a paraphyletic group of animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column (commonly known as a ''backbone'' or ''spine''), derived from the notochord. This is a grouping including all animals apart from the chordate ...
species, 15 were reptiles, 7 were amphibians, and reportedly just a couple fish
Fish are aquatic, craniate, gill-bearing animals that lack limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish as well as various extinct related groups. Approximately 95% of ...
species. This included a total of approximately 813,033 prey items having been reviewed.[Birrer, S. (2009). ''Synthesis of 312 studies on the diet of the Long-eared Owl Asio otus''. Ardea, 97(4), 615-625.] However, on closer inspection, the long-eared owl generally appears to be something of a dietary specialist. It usually takes primarily, often nearly entirely, small mammals, e.g. rodent
Rodents (from Latin , 'to gnaw') are mammals of the order Rodentia (), which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws. About 40% of all mammal species are rodents. They are n ...
s, as food in almost every part of its range. Usually a broad picture emerges that between 80 and 99% of the diet consists of mammals, averaging 94% in one estimate for all of Europe. However, in warmer, insular or more urbanized environments, a greater percentage or, rarely, even a majority of the diet can locally be non-mammalian prey.[Marti, C. D. (1976). ''A review of prey selection by the Long-eared Owl''. The Condor, 78(3), 331-336.] Mean prey sizes have been studied extensively and are almost always fall within a very narrow range. In Europe, the mean estimated prey size overall was .[ Meanwhile, in North America, mean prey sizes have varied between in two estimates.][ In general, throughout their range, the mean size of prey is generally encapsulated between , usually well under , and only in cases where long-eared owls, perhaps through lessened competition, has regular access to prey weighing or more, may the mean prey size range uncommonly reach .][ Cases of exceptionally large prey are mentioned where they occur below.
]
Mammals
The long-eared owls derives almost of its food energy from rodent
Rodents (from Latin , 'to gnaw') are mammals of the order Rodentia (), which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws. About 40% of all mammal species are rodents. They are n ...
s. Among this order, they are usually associated with a single group, the vole
Voles are small rodents that are relatives of lemmings and hamsters, but with a stouter body; a longer, hairy tail; a slightly rounder head; smaller eyes and ears; and differently formed molars (high-crowned with angular cusps instead of lo ...
s. The life history of the long-eared owl is inexorably linked to voles. Voles, members of the family Cricetidae
The Cricetidae are a family of rodents in the large and complex superfamily Muroidea. It includes true hamsters, voles, lemmings, muskrats, and New World rats and mice. At almost 608 species, it is the second-largest family of mammals, and h ...
and subfamily Arvicolinae
The Arvicolinae are a subfamily of rodents that includes the voles, lemmings, and muskrats. They are most closely related to the other subfamilies in the Cricetidae (comprising the hamsters and New World rats and mice). Some authorities place ...
, are often numerous, small-to-medium-sized rodents with relatively short tails.[Sundell, J., Huitu, O., Henttonen, H., Kaikusalo, A., Korpimäki, E., Pietiäinen, H., Saurola, P. & Hanski, I. (2004). ''Large‐scale spatial dynamics of vole populations in Finland revealed by the breeding success of vole‐eating avian predators''. Journal of Animal Ecology, 73(1), 167-178.][Hafner, D.J. & Catzeflis, F. M. (2000). ''North American Rodents. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan''. David J. Hafner, Eric Yensen and Gordon L. Kirkland (compilers and editors); IUCN/SSC Rodent Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.] In Europe, especially, the long-eared owl can be considered a specialized vole hunter. Out of 86 prey studies in the continent, in about 69% voles made up more than half of the prey.[ In particular, in the region of ]central Europe
Central Europe is an area of Europe between Western Europe and Eastern Europe, based on a common historical, social and cultural identity. The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) between Catholicism and Protestantism significantly shaped the a ...
, a little over 82% of 57,500 prey items was made up of voles.[Uttendorfer, O. (1952). ''Neue Ergebnisse fiber die Ernährung der Greifvögel und Eulen''. Eugen Umer, Stuttgart, Germany.] Where a variety of voles are available in Europe, long-eared owls show a preference for the most gregariously inclined common vole
The common vole (''Microtus arvalis'') is a European rodent.
Distribution and habitat
The common vole is hardly restricted in means of distribution and habitat and inhabits large areas of Eurasia but, apart from the Orkney vole, not the Bri ...
(''Microtus arvalis'') over the less sociable field vole
The short-tailed field vole, short-tailed vole, or simply field vole (''Microtus agrestis'') is a grey-brown vole, around 10 cm in length, with a short tail. It is one of the most common mammals in Europe, with a range extending from the Atl ...
(''Microtus agrestis''). In central Europe, 76% of the diet was compromised by the common vole species alone.[Rozenfeld, F., & Dobly, A. (2000). ''Burrowing by common voles (Microtus arvalis) in various social environments''. Behaviour, 137(11), 1443-1461.] More specifically, in the largest known study from Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
, of 45,439 prey items in the regions of Berlin
Berlin ( , ) is the capital and List of cities in Germany by population, largest city of Germany by both area and population. Its 3.7 million inhabitants make it the European Union's List of cities in the European Union by population within ci ...
and Nordharz, common vole accounted for 72%, with the field vole and tundra vole (''Microtus oeconomus'') collectively another 5.5%.[Schmidt, E. (1975). ''Die Ernährung der Waldohreule (Asio otus) in Europa''. Aquila, 80(81), 221-238.] Another large representation of the common vole was in Slovakia
Slovakia (; sk, Slovensko ), officially the Slovak Republic ( sk, Slovenská republika, links=no ), is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the s ...
, where they made up 84.1% of the diet (27,720 out of 32,192 total prey items). In different years in Slovakia, common voles may range from as much as 92.4% to as little as 57.2% depending on vole numbers.[Tulis, F., Baláž, M., Obuch, J., & Šotnár, K. (2015). ''Responses of the long-eared owl Asio otus diet and the numbers of wintering individuals to changing abundance of the common vole Microtus arvalis''. Biologia, 70(5), 667-673.] Locally, such as in former Czechoslovakia
, rue, Чеськословеньско, , yi, טשעכאסלאוואקיי,
, common_name = Czechoslovakia
, life_span = 1918–19391945–1992
, p1 = Austria-Hungary
, image_p1 ...
and in western Ukraine
Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers approximately . Prior to the ongoing Russian inv ...
, about 94-95% of the diet may be common voles alone (of 4,153 and 5,896 prey items, respectively).[ The dietary association with the common vole generally continues to most areas of European Russia, such as ]Moscow
Moscow ( , US chiefly ; rus, links=no, Москва, r=Moskva, p=mɐskˈva, a=Москва.ogg) is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 13.0 millio ...
.[Sharikov, A., & Makarova, T. (2014). ''Weather conditions explain variation in the diet of Long-eared Owl at winter roost in central part of European Russia''. Ornis Fennica, 91(2).][Sharikov, A. V. (2006). ''Peculiarities of winter feeding in the Long-Eared Owl (Asio otus) in settlements of Stavropol Krai''. Zoologicheskii Zhurnal, 85, 871-877.] At times, such as indicated in Moldova
Moldova ( , ; ), officially the Republic of Moldova ( ro, Republica Moldova), is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east, and south. The unrecognised state of Transnistr ...
, long-eared owls are capable of culling as much as 50% of the common vole population and it was opined that the voles would easily become pestilent to humans if not naturally controlled.[Nistreanu, V. (2007). ''The importance of the long-eared owl Asio otus otus (L.) in rodent control''. Bulletin of University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca. Agriculture, 63.] Like many voles, common voles are subject to population cycle A population cycle in zoology is a phenomenon where populations rise and fall over a predictable period of time. There are some species where population numbers have reasonably predictable patterns of change although the full reasons for population ...
s. In accordance with the cyclic nature of vole populations, the local numbers of long-eared owls can rise and fall sharply. In low vole years, they tend to lay fewer eggs and feed fewer young, and may not attempt to breed at all. In high vole years, they generally lay and hatch more eggs and rear more young. While incubation starts with first egg, only the oldest siblings may be feed in low food years. Generally various species of mice are eaten in poor years for common voles but appear to be an inefficient substitute (at least in more northerly climes) based on the owls’ lower breeding rates.[ Apparently, common voles at times may collectively shift in temporal activity into more diurnal activity in what may be an attempt to mitigate heavy owl predation (especially as basically all European owls tend to hunt them), although several diurnal predators are nearly as specialized predators of them as well.][Jacob, J., & Brown, J. S. (2000). ''Microhabitat use, giving‐up densities and temporal activity as short‐and long‐term anti‐predator behaviors in common voles''. Oikos, 91(1), 131-138.] Evidence has indicated that common voles are altering their life cycles with unknown long-term results due likely to global warming
In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to E ...
. It is likely that the long-eared owls of the region are to be effected by this but it is uncertain exactly what the resulting effect will be.[Grzędzicka, E. (2014). ''Does the Abundance of Voles Microtus spp. Still Determine a Number of Wintering Long-Eared Owls Asio otus?'' Ekologia, 33(4), 354-364.]
In some parts of Europe, common voles are at times not found or are locally infrequent or rare, especially on large islands, Scandinavia
Scandinavia; Sámi languages: /. ( ) is a subregion in Northern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its constituent peoples. In English usage, ''Scandinavia'' most commonly refers to Denmark, Norway, and Swe ...
and some parts of the southern reaches, such as the Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula (),
**
* Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica''
**
**
* french: Péninsule Ibérique
* mwl, Península Eibérica
* eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, def ...
, Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
and Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders ...
. Therefore, long-eared owls live mostly on different prey species. Supplemental or, occasionally, primary prey when voles are less common are murid rodent
The Muridae, or murids, are the largest family of rodents and of mammals, containing approximately 1,383 species, including many species of mice, rats, and gerbils found naturally throughout Eurasia, Africa, and Australia.
The name Muridae com ...
s, especially the commoner genera such as ''Apodemus
''Apodemus'' is a genus of Muridae (true mice and rats). The name is unrelated to that of the ''Mus'' genus, instead being derived from the Greek ἀπό-δημος (literally ''away from home'').
Taxonomy
Related to the Ryūkyū spiny rats ...
'' or field mice, '' Mus'' or house mice and, occasionally, ''Rattus
''Rattus'' is a genus of muroid rodents, all typically called rats. However, the term rat can also be applied to rodent species outside of this genus.
Species and description
The best-known ''Rattus'' species are the black rat (''R. rattus'') ...
'' or typical rats.[ In ]Scandinavia
Scandinavia; Sámi languages: /. ( ) is a subregion in Northern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its constituent peoples. In English usage, ''Scandinavia'' most commonly refers to Denmark, Norway, and Swe ...
n studies, common voles were still the main prey in Finland
Finland ( fi, Suomi ; sv, Finland ), officially the Republic of Finland (; ), is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It shares land borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of B ...
where distributed (and outnumbered field voles in the owl's diet four-to-one) and partially in Denmark
)
, song = ( en, "King Christian stood by the lofty mast")
, song_type = National and royal anthem
, image_map = EU-Denmark.svg
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of Denmark
, establish ...
(where foods were split between the two commoner vole species and field mice) but are not in Sweden and Norway
Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe, the mainland territory of which comprises the western and northernmost portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the ...
.[Korpimäki, E. (1992). ''Diet composition, prey choice, and breeding success of long-eared owls: effects of multiannual fluctuations in food abundance''. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 70(12), 2373-2381.] In Sweden, where common voles are not found, field voles were the main food, making up 65.2% of 13,917 prey items, followed by ''Apodemus
''Apodemus'' is a genus of Muridae (true mice and rats). The name is unrelated to that of the ''Mus'' genus, instead being derived from the Greek ἀπό-δημος (literally ''away from home'').
Taxonomy
Related to the Ryūkyū spiny rats ...
'' field mice species, which were a further 25.3%.[Kallander, H. (1977). ''Food of the Long-eared Owl Asio otus in Sweden''. Ornis Fennica, 54(2), 79-84.] In Norway, 3,431 prey items were primarily field voles (42.75%), ''Apodemus'' species (12.64%), tundra voles (12.35%) and bank voles (''Myodes glareolus'') (12.06%).[ In the ]British Isles
The British Isles are a group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-western coast of continental Europe, consisting of the islands of Great Britain, Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Inner and Outer Hebrides, the Northern Isles, ...
, primary prey switched between field voles (46.6% of 1,228 prey items in the Peak District
The Peak District is an upland area in England at the southern end of the Pennines. Mostly in Derbyshire, it extends into Cheshire, Greater Manchester, Staffordshire, West Yorkshire and South Yorkshire. It includes the Dark Peak, where moorla ...
and 79% in southern Scotland
Scotland (, ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. Covering the northern third of the island of Great Britain, mainland Scotland has a Anglo-Scottish border, border with England to the southeast ...
) and ''Apodemus'' mice, most especially the wood mouse
The wood mouse (''Apodemus sylvaticus'') is a murid rodent native to Europe and northwestern Africa. It is closely related to the yellow-necked mouse (''Apodemus flavicollis'') but differs in that it has no band of yellow fur around the neck, ha ...
(''Apodemus sylvaticus''), (75.6% of 1,772 prey items pooled from different parts of England and 69.5% of 1,373 prey items in Ireland
Ireland ( ; ga, Éire ; Ulster Scots dialect, Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, in Northwestern Europe, north-western Europe. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel (Grea ...
, where native voles are entirely absent).[Yalden, D. W. (1985). ''Dietary separation of owls in the Peak District''. Bird study, 32(2), 122-131.][Fairley, J. S. (1967). ''Food of Long-eared Owls in north-east Ireland''. British Birds, 60, 130-135.] In warmer areas, the long-eared owls may vary in diet depending on local prey composition. In Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
, voles, including common voles, Mediterranean pine voles (''Microtus duodecimcostatus'') and Lusitanian pine vole (''Microtus lusitanicus''), collectively made up 76.4% of 6,945 prey items in the central part of the country while on the Ebro
, name_etymology =
, image = Zaragoza shel.JPG
, image_size =
, image_caption = The Ebro River in Zaragoza
, map = SpainEbroBasin.png
, map_size =
, map_caption = The Ebro ...
in northern Spain, the Algerian mouse (''Mus spretus'') was dominant, at 69.5% of 846 prey items.[Araujo, J., Rey, J. M., Landín, A., & Moreno, A. (1974). ''Contribución al estudio del Búho Chico (Asio otus) en España''. Ardeola, 19, 397-428.][Escala, C., Alonso, D., Mazuelas, D., Mendiburu, A., Vilches, A., Arizaga, J., & Scheme, A. R. (2009). ''Winter diet of Long-eared Owls Asio otus in the Ebro valley (NE Iberia)''. Revista Catalana d’Ornitologia, 25, 49-53.] Overall, in 7 studies from assorted Spanish locations, wood mice and '' Mus'' species were the most regular prey (together accounting for just under 60% of the sum total prey items).[ Many studies in Italy show that the species is not as much of a specialized feeder in the country with considerable regional variation in prey preferences.][Bertolino, S., Ghiberti, E., & Perrone, A. (2001). ''Feeding ecology of the long-eared owl (Asio otus) in northern Italy: is it a dietary specialist?'' Canadian Journal of Zoology, 79(12), 2192-2198.] Inclement weather in particular, including any kind of precipitation
In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravitational pull from clouds. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, ice pellets, graupel and hail. ...
or high winds, seems to cause Italian long-eared owls to increase the diversity of prey that's routinely caught.[Rubolini, D., Pirovano, A., & Borghi, S. (2003). ''Influence of seasonality, temperature and rainfall on the winter diet of the long-eared owl, Asio otus''. FOLIA ZOOLOGICA-PRAHA-, 52(1), 67-76.] In some Italian studies, Savi's pine vole (''Microtus savii'') were the main food, at Prignano Cilento
Prignano Cilento is a town and ''comune'' in the province of Salerno in the Campania region of south-western Italy. As of 2017 its population was of 1,035.
Geography Location
Prignano is located in northern Cilento and borders with the municipa ...
where they made up 60.4% by number and 61.6% by biomass. In others, the wood mouse
The wood mouse (''Apodemus sylvaticus'') is a murid rodent native to Europe and northwestern Africa. It is closely related to the yellow-necked mouse (''Apodemus flavicollis'') but differs in that it has no band of yellow fur around the neck, ha ...
was the main food, such as Cremona, at 59.1% of 1,482 prey items.[Cecere, F., & Vicini, G. (2000). ''Micromammals in the diet of the long eared owl (Asio otus) at the WWF’s Oasi San Giuliano (Matera, South Italy)''. Hystrix, 11(2), 3-13.][Masutti, L., Paolucci, P. & Usberti, A. (2008). ''Reperti sull’alimentazione autunno-invernale del Gufo comune, Asio otus (Linnaeus), in un ambiente della pianura lombarda''. UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI PADOVA.] An unusual close prey association was noted in northern Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
, where access to landfills allowed them access to exceptionally large prey, brown rat
The brown rat (''Rattus norvegicus''), also known as the common rat, street rat, sewer rat, wharf rat, Hanover rat, Norway rat, Norwegian rat and Parisian rat, is a widespread species of common rat. One of the largest muroids, it is a brown o ...
(''Rattus norvegicus''), with juvenile rats caught that weighed on average and sometimes weighing up to , making up 20.5% by number and 65.1% by biomass, although wood mice were the most numerous found prey in pellets. Because of the access to rats, the mean prey size in the north Italian study was an exceptionally high [Pirovano, A., Rubolini, D., Brambilla, S., & Ferrari, N. (2000). ''Winter diet of urban roosting Long-eared Owls Asio otus in northern Italy: the importance of the Brown Rat Rattus norvegicus''. Bird study, 47(2), 242-244.] Generally, ''Mus'' mice seem to be the main foods for long-eared owls in Greece, especially the Macedonian mouse
The Macedonian mouse (''Mus macedonicus'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae and order Rodentia. This rodent lives in the area from eastern Georgia and western Bulgaria to Israel. It is considered part of a Paleoarctic group along wit ...
(''Mus macedonicus''), but also not infrequently the southern vole (''Microtus levis'') is important in the diet there as well.[Alivizatos, H., & Goutner, V. (1999). ''Winter diet of the barn owl (Tyto alba) and long-eared owl (Asio otus) in northeastern Greece: a comparison''. Journal of raptor research, 33(2), 160-163.][Kafkaletou-Diez, A., Tsachalidis, E. P., & Poirazidis, K. (2008). ''Seasonal variation in the diet of the long-eared owl (Asio otus) in a northeastern agricultural area of Greece''. J Biol Res Thessalon, 10, 181-9.] In the Canary Islands, the introduced house mouse (''Mus musculus'') was deemed to primarily support the owls today, consisting of 69.5% of 3,628 prey items per the largest known study.[
Outside of Europe within Eurasia, the feeding association with voles for long-eared owls weakens somewhat but does continue apiece in adjacent ]Turkey
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula in ...
, particularly southern vole and Günther's vole (''Microtus guentheri'') (the latter, for instance, making up to 78.7% of 5,324 prey items in Karapınar
Karapınar is a town and district of Konya Province in the Central Anatolia region of Turkey
Turkey ( tr, Türkiye ), officially the Republic of Türkiye ( tr, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti, links=no ), is a transcontinental country located mainl ...
).[Seçkin, S., & Coşkun, Y. (2005). ''Small mammals in the diet of the Long-eared Owl, Asio otus, from Diyarbakır, Turkey''. Zoology in the Middle East, 35(1), 102-103.][Selçuk, A. Y., Bankoğlu, K., & Kefelioğlu, H. (2017). ''Comparison of Winter Diet of Long-eared Owls Asio otus (L., 1758) and Short-eared Owls Asio flammeus (Pontoppidan, 1763)(Aves: Strigidae) in Northern Turkey''. Acta Zoologica Bulgarica, 69(3), 345-348.][Hızal, E. (2013). ''Diet of the Long-eared Owl, Asio otus, in Central Anatolia (Aves: Strigidae)''. Zoology in the Middle East, 59(2), 118-122.] In the Middle East
The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Province), East Thrace (Europ ...
, prey preferences varied based on soil
Soil, also commonly referred to as earth or dirt
Dirt is an unclean matter, especially when in contact with a person's clothes, skin, or possessions. In such cases, they are said to become dirty.
Common types of dirt include:
* Debri ...
composition in desert edge areas, with Israel
Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
i studies showing primary shifting rapidly from ''Gerbillus
''Gerbillus'' is a genus that contains most common and the most diverse gerbils. In 2010, after morphological and molecular studies '' Dipodillus'' was ranged as a subgenus of ''Gerbillus'', however some taxonomic authorities continue to separate ...
'' gerbil species to '' Meriones'' jird
''Meriones'' is a rodent genus that includes the gerbil most commonly kept as a pet, ''Meriones unguiculatus''. The genus contains most animals referred to as jirds, but members of the genera '' Sekeetamys'', ''Brachiones'', and sometimes '' Pach ...
s to Günther's voles, with similar findings in wintering owls in Iran.[Charter, M., Izhaki, I., Leshem, Y., & Roulin, A. (2012). ''Diet and breeding success of long-eared owls in a semi-arid environment''. Journal of Arid Environments, 85, 142-144.][Khaleghizadeh, A., Arbabi, T., Noori, G., Javidkar, M., & Shahriari, A. (2009). ''Diet of wintering Long-eared Owl Asio otus in Zabol, southeastern Iran''. Ardea, 97(4), 631-634.] Relatively large-sized prey, Indian gerbil
The Indian gerbil (''Tatera indica'') also known as antelope rat, is a species of rodent in the family Muridae.
It is found in southern Asia from Syria to Bangladesh.
It is the only species in the genus ''Tatera''. Members of the genus ''Gerb ...
s (''Tatera indica'') and short-tailed bandicoot rats (''Nesokia indica''), was reported for wintering long-eared owls in Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
estimated to average and , respectively, constituted a good portion of the prey (72.9% of biomass) and taken in almost even numbers with smaller ''Gerbillus
''Gerbillus'' is a genus that contains most common and the most diverse gerbils. In 2010, after morphological and molecular studies '' Dipodillus'' was ranged as a subgenus of ''Gerbillus'', however some taxonomic authorities continue to separate ...
'' species.[ Much further east, in China and ]Mongolia
Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million, ...
, long-eared owls often subsist on different varieties rodent, especially small hamster
Hamsters are rodents (order Rodentia) belonging to the subfamily Cricetinae, which contains 19 species classified in seven genera.Fox, Sue. 2006. ''Hamsters''. T.F.H. Publications Inc. They have become established as popular small pets. The ...
s, which are also cricetid but not arvicoline, such as the Chinese striped (''Cricetulus barabensis'') and Roborovski dwarves (''Phodopus roborovskii''), alternatively with larger jirds, such as midday jirds (''Meriones meridianus''), as well as house mice
The house mouse (''Mus musculus'') is a small mammal of the order Rodentia, characteristically having a pointed snout, large rounded ears, and a long and almost hairless tail. It is one of the most abundant species of the genus ''Mus''. Although ...
.[Liu, N. F., Zhao, J. Y., Zhao, W., Shao, M. Q., & Song, S. (2010). ''Seasonal variation in the diet of Long-eared Owl, Asio otus, in the desert of Northwest China''. Animal Biology, 60(2), 115-122.][Scott, D. M., Gladwin, K., & Barton, N. (2005). ''Comparison of the diet of two desert-living owls, the Long-eared Owl (Asio otus) and Little Owl (Athene noctua) from southern Mongolia''. Mongolian Journal of Biological Sciences, 3(1), 31-37.][Stubbe, M., Batsajchan, N., Lindecke, O., Samjaa, R., & Stubbe, A. (2016). ''New Data on Feeding Ecology of Bubo bubo and Asio otus (Aves: Strigidae) in Mongolia''. Biodiversity Research in Mongolia, Vol. 13.] In more northerly eastern regions, voles continue to be of import. In western Siberia
Siberia ( ; rus, Сибирь, r=Sibir', p=sʲɪˈbʲirʲ, a=Ru-Сибирь.ogg) is an extensive region, geographical region, constituting all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has been a ...
, tundra voles, narrow-headed voles (''Microtus gregalis''), Eurasian harvest mouse (''Micromys minutus'') and steppe lemming
The steppe lemming or steppe vole (''Lagurus lagurus'') is a small, plump, light-grey rodent, similar in appearance to the Norway lemming ('' Lemmus lemmus''), but not in the same genus. The steppe lemming eats shoots and leaves and is more act ...
(''Lagurus lagurus'') were the main rodent prey.[Dupal, T. A., & Chernyshov, V. M. (2013). ''Small mammals in the diets of the Long-eared Owl (Asio otus) and Short-eared Owl (A. flammeus) in the south of Western Siberia''. Russian journal of ecology, 44(5), 397-401.] In Japan, diet is strongly biased to rodents such as Japanese grass vole (''Microtus montebelli'') (84.2% of foods in Niigata on Honshu
, historically called , is the largest and most populous island of Japan. It is located south of Hokkaidō across the Tsugaru Strait, north of Shikoku across the Inland Sea, and northeast of Kyūshū across the Kanmon Straits. The island se ...
), grey red-backed vole
The grey red-backed vole or the grey-sided vole (''Myodes rufocanus'') is a species of vole. An adult grey red-backed vole weighs 20-50 grams. This species ranges across northern Eurasia, including northern China, the northern Korean Peni ...
(''Myodes rufocanus'') (87.2% on Hokkaido
is Japan's second largest island and comprises the largest and northernmost prefecture, making up its own region. The Tsugaru Strait separates Hokkaidō from Honshu; the two islands are connected by the undersea railway Seikan Tunnel.
The lar ...
) or house mouse (77.7% in Ehime Prefecture
is a prefecture of Japan located on the island of Shikoku. Ehime Prefecture has a population of 1,342,011 (1 June 2019) and has a geographic area of 5,676 km2 (2,191 sq mi). Ehime Prefecture borders Kagawa Prefecture to the northeast, Tok ...
, Shikoku
is the smallest of the four main islands of Japan. It is long and between wide. It has a population of 3.8 million (, 3.1%). It is south of Honshu and northeast of Kyushu. Shikoku's ancient names include ''Iyo-no-futana-shima'' (), '' ...
).[Chiba, A., Onojima, M., & Kinoshita, T. (2005). ''Prey of the Long-eared Owl Asio otus in the suburbs of Niigata City, central Japan, as revealed by pellet analysis''. Ornithological Science, 4(2), 169-172.][Matsuoka, S. (1974). ''Prey taken by long-eared owl Asio otus in the breeding season in Hokkaido''. Journal of the Yamashina Institute for Ornithology, 7(3), 324-329.][Kawaguchi, S., & Yamamoto, T. (2003). ''Food item found in pellets of Long-eared owls wintering in Ehime, Japan''. Japanese Journal of Ornithology, 52(1), 29-31.]
In North America, long-eared owls also primarily rely on small rodents in their diet, but their diet is somewhat more diverse by rodent family and less completely reliant on voles than their Eurasian counterparts.[ In general, the further north they are found in North America, the more restricted and vole based the diet is for this species. While diets are poorly researched in detail in Canada,][Munro, J. A. (1929). ''Notes on the food habits of certain raptores in British Columbia and Alberta''. The Condor, 31(3), 112-116.] in the northern tier states of Massachusetts
Massachusetts (Massachusett: ''Muhsachuweesut Massachusett_writing_systems.html" ;"title="nowiki/> məhswatʃəwiːsət.html" ;"title="Massachusett writing systems">məhswatʃəwiːsət">Massachusett writing systems">məhswatʃəwiːsət'' En ...
, Michigan
Michigan () is a U.S. state, state in the Great Lakes region, Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest, upper Midwestern United States. With a population of nearly 10.12 million and an area of nearly , Michigan is the List of U.S. states and ...
, Minnesota
Minnesota () is a state in the upper midwestern region of the United States. It is the 12th largest U.S. state in area and the 22nd most populous, with over 5.75 million residents. Minnesota is home to western prairies, now given over to ...
, Ohio
Ohio () is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States. Of the fifty U.S. states, it is the 34th-largest by area, and with a population of nearly 11.8 million, is the seventh-most populous and tenth-most densely populated. The sta ...
, New York, Wisconsin
Wisconsin () is a state in the upper Midwestern United States. Wisconsin is the 25th-largest state by total area and the 20th-most populous. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake M ...
and northern Oregon
Oregon () is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington, while the Snake River delineates much of its eastern boundary with Idaho. T ...
voles were easily the main prey for long-eared owls.[Holt, D. W., & Childs, N. N. (1991). ''Non-Breeding season diet of long-eared owls in Massachusetts''. J Raptor Res, 25, 23-4.][Spiker, C.J. (1933). ''Analysis of Two Hundred Long-Eared Owl Pellets''. The Wilson Bulletin, 45(4), 198-198.][Christenson, G., & Fuller, M. R. (1975). ''Food habits of two Long-eared Owl families in east-central Minnesota''. Loon, 47(2), 58-61.][Randle, W., & Austing, R. (1952). ''Ecological notes on Long-eared and Saw-whet Owls in southwestern Ohio''. Ecology, 33(3), 422-426.][Morgan, S. & Spies, Jr., C. (1965). ''Winter food of long-eared owls''. Kingbird, 15: 222.][Reynolds, R. T. (1970). ''Nest observations of the long-eared owl (Asio otus) in Benton County, Oregon, with notes on their food habits''. Murrelet. 51: 8-9., 51, 8-9.] In particular, the meadow vole
The eastern meadow vole (''Microtus pennsylvanicus''), sometimes called the field mouse or meadow mouse, is a North American vole found in eastern Canada and the United States. Its range extends farther south along the Atlantic coast.
The west ...
(''Microtus pennsylvanicus'') tends to be a dietary staple, such as in the two of the larger American studies, in Michigan where they constituted 70.6% of 3,269 prey items and in Wisconsin where they constituted 83.4% of 3,273 prey items.[Errington, P. L. (1932). ''Food habits of southern Wisconsin raptors. Part I. Owls''. The Condor, 34(4), 176-186.] Another regularly featured vole in the diet in America is the prairie vole
The prairie vole (''Microtus ochrogaster'') is a small vole found in central North America. The vole has long, coarse grayish-brown fur on the upper portion of the body and yellowish fur on the lower portion of the body. It has short ears and a ...
(''Microtus ochrogaster''), but few other voles seem to be taken other than opportunistically excluding Oregon where the gray-tailed vole (''Microtus canicaudus'') and Townsend's vole
Townsend's vole (''Microtus townsendii'') is a species of rodent in the family Cricetidae, the sister species of '' M. canicaudus''. It is found in temperate grasslands of British Columbia in Canada and in the states of Washington and Oregon in t ...
(''Microtus townsendii'') locally led the foods.[Rainey, D. G., & Robinson, T. S. (1954). ''Food of the long-eared owl in Douglas County, Kansas''. Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science, 57(2), 206-207.] In North America, non- arvicoline cricetid rodents such as the genus ''Peromyscus
''Peromyscus'' is a genus of rodents. They are commonly referred to as deer mice or deermice, not to be confused with the chevrotain or "mouse deer". They are New World mice only distantly related to the common house and laboratory mouse, ''Mu ...
'', or deermice, and the smaller ''Reithrodontomys
''Reithrodontomys'' is the genus of groove-toothed New World harvest mice.
Species
This genus contains these species:
* Baker's small-toothed harvest mouse, ''Reithrodontomys bakeri''
* Short-nosed harvest mouse, ''Reithrodontomys brevirostris'' ...
'', or harvest mice, fill the niche
Niche may refer to:
Science
*Developmental niche, a concept for understanding the cultural context of child development
*Ecological niche, a term describing the relational position of an organism's species
*Niche differentiation, in ecology, the ...
of small wild mice and may be irresistible to hunting long-eared owls.[ ''Peromyscus'' mice were the main foods for this species in ]Colorado
Colorado (, other variants) is a state in the Mountain states, Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It encompasses most of the Southern Rocky Mountains, as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the wes ...
, Illinois
Illinois ( ) is a state in the Midwestern United States. Its largest metropolitan areas include the Chicago metropolitan area, and the Metro East section, of Greater St. Louis. Other smaller metropolitan areas include, Peoria and Rockf ...
and most studies from Iowa
Iowa () is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States, bordered by the Mississippi River to the east and the Missouri River and Big Sioux River to the west. It is bordered by six states: Wisconsin to the northeast, Illinois to th ...
(composing up to 59.1% of the local diet).[Cahn, A. R., & Kemp, J. T. (1930). ''On the food of certain owls in east-central Illinois''. The Auk, 323-328.][Morrissey, T. J. (1949). ''The winter food of some long-eared owls''. Iowa Bird Life, 19: 70-71.][Voight, J., & Glenn-Lewin, D. C. (1978). ''Prey availability and prey taken by long-eared owls in Iowa''. American Midland Naturalist, 162-171.]
In many areas, particular arid vicinities, the superfamily Geomyoidea
Geomyoidea is a superfamily of rodent that contains the pocket gophers ( Geomyidae), the kangaroo rats and mice ( Heteromyidae), and their fossil relatives.
Characteristics
Although dissimilar in overall appearance, gophers have been united wit ...
supplants cricetid rodents as the primary foods, namely pocket mice, kangaroo rat
Kangaroo rats, small mostly nocturnal rodents of genus ''Dipodomys'', are native to arid areas of western North America. The common name derives from their bipedal form. They hop in a manner similar to the much larger kangaroo, but developed t ...
s and occasionally pocket gopher
Pocket gophers, commonly referred to simply as gophers, are burrowing rodents of the family Geomyidae. The roughly 41 speciesSearch results for "Geomyidae" on thASM Mammal Diversity Database are all endemic to North and Central America. They are ...
s and jumping mice. Particularly this appears to be the case in the American southwest
The Southwestern United States, also known as the American Southwest or simply the Southwest, is a geographic and cultural region of the United States that generally includes Arizona, New Mexico, and adjacent portions of California, Colorado ...
where in Arizona
Arizona ( ; nv, Hoozdo Hahoodzo ; ood, Alĭ ṣonak ) is a state in the Southwestern United States. It is the 6th largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix. Arizona is part of the Fou ...
, ''Perognathus
''Perognathus'' is a genus of pocket mouse. Like other members of their family they are more closely related to pocket gophers than to true mice.
Characteristics
The silky pocket mice are small animals with soft pelage, long tails, and small ...
'' pocket mice composed 61.3% of the diet, in New Mexico
)
, population_demonym = New Mexican ( es, Neomexicano, Neomejicano, Nuevo Mexicano)
, seat = Santa Fe
, LargestCity = Albuquerque
, LargestMetro = Tiguex
, OfficialLang = None
, Languages = English, Spanish ( New Mexican), Navajo, Ke ...
, where species pairs of pocket mice and kangaroo rats composed 51.8% and 20.5% of the foods, respectively, and in southern California
Southern California (commonly shortened to SoCal) is a geographic and cultural region that generally comprises the southern portion of the U.S. state of California. It includes the Los Angeles metropolitan area, the second most populous urban a ...
, where ''Perognathus'' were 51% of foods and ''Dipodomys
Kangaroo rats, small mostly nocturnal rodents of genus ''Dipodomys'', are native to arid areas of western North America. The common name derives from their bipedal form. They hop in a manner similar to the much larger kangaroo, but developed thi ...
'' kangaroo rats were a further 37.8% of the foods.[Barrows, C. W. (1989). ''Diets of five species of desert owls''. Western Birds, 20(1), 1-10.][Marti, C. D., Marks, J. S., Craig, T. H., & Craig, E. H. (1986). ''Long-eared owl diet in northwestern New Mexico''. The Southwestern Naturalist, 31(3), 416-419.] In the Sonoran desert
The Sonoran Desert ( es, Desierto de Sonora) is a desert in North America and ecoregion that covers the northwestern Mexican states of Sonora, Baja California, and Baja California Sur, as well as part of the southwestern United States (in Ariz ...
of Mexico
Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
, nearly all known prey were geomyoids, in particular the Merriam's kangaroo rat
Merriam's kangaroo rat (''Dipodomys merriami'') is a species of rodent in the family Heteromyidae. The species name commemorates Clinton Hart Merriam. It is found in the Upper and Lower Sonoran life zones of the southwestern United States, Baja ...
(''Dipodomys merriami''), which alone made up 74.7% of the foods.[Brown, N. L. (1995). ''Notes on the winter roost and diet of long-eared owls in the Sonoran Desert''. Journal of Raptor Research, 29(4), 277-279.] In a well-studied population, Snake River region of southeastern Idaho
Idaho ( ) is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. To the north, it shares a small portion of the Canada–United States border with the province of British Columbia. It borders the states of Montana and Wyomi ...
as well as Owyhee county
Owyhee County ( ) is a county in the southwestern corner of the U.S. state of Idaho. As of the 2020 census, the population was 12,133. The county seat is Murphy, and its largest city is Homedale. In area it is the second-largest county in Ida ...
in the southwest part of the state, geomyoid rodents are usually the most prominent prey, especially the Great Basin pocket mouse (''Perognathus parvus'') and Ord's kangaroo rat
Ord's kangaroo rat (''Dipodomys ordii'') is a kangaroo rat native to western North America, specifically the Great Plains and the Great Basin, with its range extending from extreme southern Canada to central Mexico.
Ord's kangaroo rat has a fift ...
(''Dipodomys ordii'') (often supplemented heavily with ''Peromyscus'' mice). Due to the relatively large size of kangaroo rats, in Idaho, mean prey size may range up to at least [Marks, J. S., & Marti, C. D. (1984). ''Feeding ecology of sympatric Barn Owls and Long-eared Owls in Idaho''. Ornis scandinavica, 135-143.][Craig, T. H., Craig, E. H., & Powers, L. R. (1985). ''Food habits of long-eared owls (Asio otus) at a communal roost site during the nesting season''. The Auk, 102(1), 193-195.][Marks, J. S. (1984). ''Feeding ecology of breeding long-eared owls in southwestern Idaho''. Canadian journal of zoology, 62(8), 1528-1533.][Marks, J. S., & Marks, V. A. (1981). ''Comparative food habits of the Screech Owl and Long-eared Owl in southwestern Idaho''. The Murrelet, 62(3), 80-82.] In some parts of North America, richer biomass are likely when larger prey takes the primary position, such as cotton rat
A cotton rat is any member of the rodent genus ''Sigmodon''. Their name derives from their damaging effects on cotton as well as other plantation crops, such as sugarcane, corn, peanut and rice. Cotton rats have small ears and dark coats, and a ...
s. Cotton rats were the main prey in Janos Biosphere Reserve, Mexico (43.2% by number, 69.1% by biomass) and in Texas
Texas (, ; Spanish: ''Texas'', ''Tejas'') is a state in the South Central region of the United States. At 268,596 square miles (695,662 km2), and with more than 29.1 million residents in 2020, it is the second-largest U.S. state by ...
, in the latter slightly outnumbering (36%) the much smaller harvest mice (23%).[González-Rojas, J. I., Padilla-Rangel, H., Ruvalcaba-Ortega, I., Cruz-Nieto, M. A., Canales-del-Castillo, R., & Guzmán-Velasco, A. (2017). ''Winter diet of the long-eared owl Asio otus (Strigiformes: Strigidae) in the grasslands of Janos, Chihuahua, Mexico''. Revista chilena de historia natural, 90(1), 1.][Noland, R. L., Maxwell, T. C., & Dowler, R. C. (2013). ''Food habits of long-eared owls (Asio otus) at a winter communal roost in Texas''. The Southwestern Naturalist, 58(2), 245-248.] Since the mean body size of hispid cotton rats (''Sigmodon hispidus'') caught reportedly is around , they probably represent a very productive prey resource for long-eared owls.[Klippel, W. E., & Parmalee, P. W. (1982). ''Prey of a wintering Long-eared Owl in the Nashville Basin, Tennessee''. Journal of Field Ornithology, 53(4), 418-420.] Similarly, exceptional large prey was taken northeastern Oregon
Oregon () is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington, while the Snake River delineates much of its eastern boundary with Idaho. T ...
, where both juvenile, weighing about and adult, weighing about , northern pocket gophers (''Thomomys talpoides'') were caught and made up 55.7% by number and 74.4% by biomass of the diets of long-eared owls. Depending on circumstances, the mean size of northern pocket gophers taken in different areas can vary from or higher, but long-eared owls usually take juveniles outside of the Oregon study (weighing on the lower end of that mass scale).[Craig, T. H., & Trost, C. H. (1979). ''The biology and nesting density of breeding American Kestrels and Long-eared Owls on the Big Lost River, southeastern Idaho''. The Wilson Bulletin, 50-61.][Bull, E. L., Wright, A. L., & Henjum, M. G. (1989). ''Nesting and diet of Long-eared Owls in conifer forests, Oregon''. The Condor, 91(4), 908-912.]
Non-rodent mammalian prey is seldom of great import to long-eared owls, though they can take some numbers of other kinds of mammals locally. Despite claims that the long-eared owls “avoids” shrew
Shrews (family Soricidae) are small mole-like mammals classified in the order Eulipotyphla. True shrews are not to be confused with treeshrews, otter shrews, elephant shrews, West Indies shrews, or marsupial shrews, which belong to differ ...
s as prey, it is probably more correct to say that they do not seek them out nearly as often as more socially inclined and/or densely populated rodent prey. Some other owls may be considered regular and common shrew predators, such as often barn owls. In Europe, a broad picture of prey selection indicates about 2% of the diet of long-eared owls consists of shrews.[ Locally, relatively high numbers of shrews were reported in ]