Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a
Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*, the capital city of Italy
*, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*, the people of ancient Rome
*', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter in the New Testament of the Christian Bible
Roman ...
historian. He wrote a monumental history of
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption = The te ...

and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding in 753 BC through the reign of
Augustus
Caesar Augustus (23 September 63 BC19 August AD 14) was the first Roman emperor
The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the imperial period (starting in 27 BC). The emperors used a variety of different titles through ...

in Livy's own lifetime. He was on familiar terms with members of the
Julio-Claudian dynasty
, native_name_lang=Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken in the area around Rome, known as Latium. Through the power of the Rom ...
and a friend of Augustus, whose young grandnephew, the future emperor
Claudius
Claudius ( ; Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54) was the fourth Roman emperor
The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the History of the Roman Empire, imperial p ...

, he exhorted to take up the writing of history.
Life
Livy was born in Patavium in northern
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic ( it, Repubblica Italiana, links=no ), is a country consisting of a peninsula delimited by the Alps
The Alps ; german: Alpen ; it, Alpi ; rm, Alps; sl, Alpe ) are the highest ...
, now modern
Padua
Padua ( ; it, Padova ; vec, Pàdova) is a city and ''comune'' in Veneto, northern Italy. Padua is on the river Bacchiglione, west of Venice. It is the capital of the province of Padua. It is also the economic and communications hub of the a ...
, probably in 59 BC. At the time of his birth, his home city of Patavium was the second wealthiest on the Italian peninsula, and the largest in the province of
Cisalpine Gaul
Cisalpine Gaul ( la, Gallia Cisalpina, also called ''Gallia Citerior'' or ''Gallia Togata'') was the part of Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic ( it, Repubblica Italiana, links=no ), is a country consisting of Ital ...
(northern Italy). Cisalpine Gaul was merged in
during his lifetime and its inhabitants were given Roman citizenship by
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*, the capital city of Italy
*, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*, the people of ancient Rome
*', shortened ...

. In his works, Livy often expressed his deep affection and pride for Patavium, and the city was well known for its conservative values in
morality
Morality (from ) is the differentiation of intention
Intentions are mental states in which the agent commits themselves to a course of action. Having the plan to visit the zoo tomorrow is an example of an intention. The action plan is the '' ...

and politics. "He was by nature a recluse, mild in temperament and averse to violence; the restorative peace of his time gave him the opportunity to turn all his imaginative passion to the legendary and historical past of the country he loved."
Livy's teenage years were during the 40s BC, a period of
civil wars throughout the Roman world. The governor of Cisalpine Gaul at the time,
Asinius Pollio, tried to sway Patavium into supporting
Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony), the leader of one of the warring factions. The wealthy citizens of Patavium refused to contribute money and arms to Asinius Pollio, and went into hiding. Pollio then attempted to bribe the slaves of those wealthy citizens to expose the whereabouts of their masters; his bribery did not work, and the citizens instead pledged their allegiance to the
Senate
The Curia Julia in the Roman Forum ">Roman_Forum.html" ;"title="Curia Julia in the Roman Forum">Curia Julia in the Roman Forum
A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or Debating chamber, chamber of a bicameral legislatu ...

. It is therefore likely that the Roman civil wars prevented Livy from pursuing a higher education in Rome or going on a tour of
Greece
Greece ( el, Ελλάδα, Elláda, ), officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country located in Southeastern Europe
Southeast Europe or Southeastern Europe () is a geographical subregion
A subregion is a part of a larger region
In geogr ...

, which was common for adolescent males of the nobility at the time. Many years later, Asinius Pollio derisively commented on Livy's "patavinity", saying that Livy's Latin showed certain "provincialisms" frowned on at Rome. Pollio's dig may have been the result of bad feelings he harboured toward the city of Patavium from his experiences there during the civil wars.
Livy probably went to Rome in the 30s BC, and it is likely that he spent a large amount of time in the city after this, although it may not have been his primary home. During his time in Rome, he was never a senator nor held a government position. His writings contain elementary mistakes on military matters, indicating that he probably never served in the
Roman army
The Roman army (Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language
A classical language is a language
A language is a structured system of communication
Communication (from Latin ''communicare'', meaning "to share" or "to be in ...

. However, he was educated in philosophy and rhetoric. It seems that Livy had the financial resources and means to live an independent life, though the origin of that wealth is unknown. He devoted a large part of his life to his writings, which he was able to do because of his financial freedom.
Livy was known to give recitations to small audiences, but he was not heard of to engage in
declamation
Declamation (from the Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken in the area around Rome, known as Latium. Through the power of the R ...
, then a common pastime. He was familiar with the emperor
Augustus
Caesar Augustus (23 September 63 BC19 August AD 14) was the first Roman emperor
The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the imperial period (starting in 27 BC). The emperors used a variety of different titles through ...

and the imperial family. Augustus was considered by later Romans to have been the greatest Roman emperor, benefiting Livy's reputation long after his death.
Suetonius
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (), commonly known as Suetonius ( ; c. AD 69 – after AD 122), was a Roman historianRoman historiography stretches back to at least the 3rd century BC and was indebted to earlier Greek historiography. The Romans ...

described how Livy encouraged the future emperor
Claudius
Claudius ( ; Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54) was the fourth Roman emperor
The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the History of the Roman Empire, imperial p ...

, who was born in 10 BC, to write historiographical works during his childhood.
Livy's most famous work was his history of
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption = The te ...

. In it he narrates a complete history of the city of Rome, from its foundation to the death of Augustus. Because he was writing under the reign of Augustus, Livy's history emphasizes the great triumphs of Rome. He wrote his history with embellished accounts of Roman heroism in order to promote the new type of government implemented by Augustus when he became emperor. In Livy's preface to his history, he said that he did not care whether his personal fame remained in darkness, as long as his work helped to "preserve the memory of the deeds of the world’s preeminent nation." Because Livy was mostly writing about events that had occurred hundreds of years earlier, the historical value of his work was questionable, although many Romans came to believe his account to be true.
Livy was married and had at least one daughter and one son. He also produced other works, including an essay in the form of a letter to his son, and numerous dialogues, most likely modelled on similar works by
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Ancient Rome, Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher and Academic skepticism, Academic Skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during crisis of ...

.
Titus Livius died at his home city of Patavium in AD 17.
Works
Livy's only surviving work is commonly known as "''History of Rome''" (or '), which was his career from his mid-life, probably 32, until he left
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption = The te ...

for
Padua
Padua ( ; it, Padova ; vec, Pàdova) is a city and ''comune'' in Veneto, northern Italy. Padua is on the river Bacchiglione, west of Venice. It is the capital of the province of Padua. It is also the economic and communications hub of the a ...
in old age, probably in the reign of
Tiberius
Tiberius Caesar Augustus (; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was the second Roman emperor
The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the History of the Roman Empire, imperial period (starting in 27 BC). The emperors use ...

after the death of Augustus. When he began this work he was already past his youth; presumably, events in his life prior to that time had led to his intense activity as a historian.
Seneca the Younger
Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger (; AD65), usually known as Seneca, was a Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*, the capital city of Italy
*, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*, the people of ancient Rome
*', ...
says he was an orator and philosopher and had written some historical treatises in those fields.
"''History of Rome''" also served as the driving force behind the "northern theory" regarding the Etruscan's origins. This is because in the book Livy states, "The Greeks also call them the ‘Tyrrhene’ and the ‘Adriatic’…The Alpine tribes are undoubtedly of the same kind, especially the Raetii, who had through the nature of their country become so uncivilized that they retained no trace of their original condition except their language, and even this was not free from corruption,". Thus, many scholars, like Karl Otfried Müller, utilized this statement as evidence that the Etruscans or the Tyrrhenians migrated from the north and were descendants of an Alpine tribe known as the Raeti.
Reception
Imperial era
Livy's ''
History of Rome
The history of Rome includes the history of the Rome, city of Rome as well as the Ancient Rome, civilisation of ancient Rome. Roman history has been influential on the modern world, especially in the history of the Catholic Church, and Roman law ...
'' was in high demand from the time it was published and remained so during the early years of the empire.
Pliny the Younger
Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus, born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo (61 – c. 113), better known as Pliny the Younger (), was a lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome
In historiography, ancient Rome is Roman people, Rom ...

reported that Livy's celebrity was so widespread, a man from
Cádiz
Cádiz (, also , ; see more below) is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the Province of Cádiz, one of eight that make up the autonomous community of Andalusia
Andalusia (, ; es, Andalucía ) is the southernmost ...

travelled to Rome and back for the sole purpose of meeting him. Livy's work was a source for the later works of
Aurelius Victor
Sextus Aurelius Victor (c. 320 – c. 390) was a historian and politician of the Roman Empire
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Rōmānum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post- period o ...
,
Cassiodorus
Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator (c. 485 – c. 585), commonly known as Cassiodorus (), was a Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*, the capital city of Italy
*, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*, the people ...
,
Eutropius,
Festus,
Florus,
Granius LicinianusGranius Licinianus (active in the 2nd century AD) was a Roman author of historical and encyclopedic works that survive only in fragments. He most likely lived at the time of Hadrian
Hadrian (; la, Caesar Traianus Hadrianus ; 24 January 76 ...
and
Orosius
Paulus Orosius (; born 375/385 – 420 AD), less often Paul Orosius in English
English usually refers to:
* English language
English is a West Germanic languages, West Germanic language first spoken in History of Anglo-Saxon England ...
.
Julius Obsequens
Julius Obsequens was a Roman
Roman or Romans usually refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*''Epistle to the Romans'', shortene ...
used Livy, or a source with access to Livy, to compose his ''De Prodigiis'', an account of
supernatural
The supernatural encompasses supposed phenomena or entities that are not subject to the Scientific law, laws of nature. This term is attributed to non-physical entity, non-physical entities, such as angels, demons, gods, and ghost, spirits. It ...

events in Rome from the consulship of
and
Laelius to that of Paulus Fabius and Quintus Aelius.
Livy wrote during the reign of Augustus, who came to power after a civil war with generals and consuls claiming to be defending the
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic ( la, Rēs pūblica Rōmāna ) was a state of the classical Roman civilization, run through public
In public relations
Public relations (PR) is the practice of managing and disseminating information from an indiv ...
, such as
Pompey
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey or Pompey the Great, was a leading Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*, the capital city of Italy
*, Roman civilization f ...
. Patavium had been pro-Pompey. To clarify his status, the victor of the civil war,
Octavian Caesar, had wanted to take the title ''
Romulus
Romulus () was the legendary founder
Founder or Founders may refer to:
Places
*Founders Park, a stadium in South Carolina, formerly known as Carolina Stadium
* Founders Park, a waterside park in Islamorada, Florida#In popular culture, Islamora ...
'' (the first king of Rome) but in the end accepted the senate proposal of ''Augustus''. Rather than abolishing the republic, he adapted it and its institutions to imperial rule.
The historian
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus ( , ; – ) was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars.
He lived in what has been called the Silver Age of Latin literature
Classi ...

, writing about a century after Livy's time, described the Emperor Augustus as his friend. Describing the trial of
Cremutius Cordus, Tacitus represents him as defending himself face-to-face with the frowning Tiberius as follows:
Livy's reasons for returning to
Padua
Padua ( ; it, Padova ; vec, Pàdova) is a city and ''comune'' in Veneto, northern Italy. Padua is on the river Bacchiglione, west of Venice. It is the capital of the province of Padua. It is also the economic and communications hub of the a ...
after the death of Augustus (if he did) are unclear, but the circumstances of
Tiberius
Tiberius Caesar Augustus (; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was the second Roman emperor
The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman Empire during the History of the Roman Empire, imperial period (starting in 27 BC). The emperors use ...

' reign certainly allow for speculation.
Later

During the
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe
The history of Europe concerns itself with the discovery and collection, the study, organization and presentation and the interpretation of past events and affairs of the people of Europe since the beginning of ...
, interest in Livy declined because Western scholars were more focused on religious texts. Due to the length of the work, the literate class was already reading summaries rather than the work itself, which was tedious to copy, expensive, and required a lot of storage space. It must have been during this period, if not before, that manuscripts began to be lost without replacement.
The
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period
Period may refer to:
Common uses
* Era, a length or span of time
* Full stop (or period), a punctuation mark
Arts, entertainment, and media
* Period (music), a concept in ...

was a time of intense revival; the population discovered that Livy's work was being lost and large amounts of money changed hands in the rush to collect Livian manuscripts. The poet
Beccadelli sold a country home for funding to purchase one manuscript copied by
.
Petrarch
Francesco Petrarca (; 20 July 1304 – 18/19 July 1374), commonly anglicized
Linguistic anglicisation (or anglicization, occasionally anglification, anglifying, or Englishing) is the practice of modifying foreign words, names, and phrases ...

and
Pope Nicholas V
Pope Nicholas V ( la, Nicholaus V; 13 November 1397 – 24 March 1455), born Tommaso Parentucelli, was head of the Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 ...

launched a search for the now missing books.
published an amended text initiating the field of Livy scholarship.
Dante
Dante Alighieri (), probably baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri and often referred to Mononymous person, simply as Dante (, also ; – 14 September 1321), was an Italian Italian poetry, poet, writer and philosopher. His ''Divine Co ...

speaks highly of him in his poetry, and
Francis I of France
Francis I (french: François Ier; frm, Francoys; 12 September 1494 – 31 March 1547) was King of France from 1515 until his death in 1547. He was the son of Charles, Count of Angoulême, and Louise of Savoy. He succeeded his first cousin once ...
commissioned extensive artwork treating Livian themes;
Niccolò Machiavelli
Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (; ; rarely rendered Nicholas Machiavel (see below
See or SEE may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
* Music:
** See (album), ''See'' (album), studio album by rock band The Rascals
*** "See", song by ...
's work on
republic
A republic () is a form of government
A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state
State may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media Literature
* ''State Magazine'', a month ...

s, the ''
Discourses on Livy
The ''Discourses on Livy'' ( it, Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito Livio, literally "Discourses on the First Ten of Titus Livy") is a work of political history and philosophy written in the early 16th century (c. 1517) by the Italian writer and ...
'', is presented as a commentary on the ''History of Rome''. Respect for Livy rose to lofty heights.
Walter Scott
Sir Walter Scott, 1st Baronet (15 August 1771 – 21 September 1832), was a Scottish historical novelist, poet, playwright and historian. Many of his works remain classics of European and Scottish literature
Scottish literature is literatu ...

reports in ''
Waverley'' (1814) as an historical fact that a Scotchman involved in the first Jacobite uprising of 1715 was recaptured (and executed) because, having escaped, he yet lingered near the place of his captivity in "the hope of recovering his favourite ''Titus Livius''".
Dates
The authority supplying information from which possible vital data on Livy can be deduced is
Eusebius of Caesarea
Eusebius of Caesarea (; grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος τῆς Καισαρείας, ''Eusébios tés Kaisareías''; AD 260/265 – 339/340), also known as Eusebius Pamphili (from the grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος τοῦ Παμϕίλου) ...

, a
bishop
A bishop is an ordained, consecrated, or appointed member of the Clergy#Christianity, Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight.
Within the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Moravian Chu ...

of the early
Christian Church
Christian Church is a Protestant
Protestantism is a form of Christianity that originated with the 16th-century Reformation, a movement against what its followers perceived to be Criticism of the Catholic Church, errors in the Catholic Church. ...

. One of his works was a summary of world history in
ancient Greek
Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language
Greek ( el, label=Modern Greek
Modern Greek (, , or , ''Kiní Neoellinikí Glóssa''), generally referred to by speakers simply as Greek (, ), refers collectively to the diale ...
, termed the ''
Chronikon,'' dating from the early 4th century AD. This work was lost except for fragments (mainly excerpts), but not before it had been translated in whole and in part by various authors such as
St. Jerome
Jerome (; la, Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος; c. 342–347 – 30 September 420), also known as Jerome of Stridon, was a Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belo ...

. The entire work survives in two separate manuscripts,
Armenian
Armenian may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent
** Armenian language, the Indo-European language spoken ...
and Greek (Christesen and Martirosova-Torlone 2006). St. Jerome wrote in Latin. Fragments in
SyriacSyriac may refer to:
*Syriac language, a dialect of Middle Aramaic
* Syriac alphabet
** Syriac (Unicode block)
** Syriac Supplement
* Neo-Aramaic languages also known as Syriac in most native vernaculars
* Syriac Christianity, the churches using Syr ...

exist.
Eusebius
Eusebius of Caesarea (; grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος τῆς Καισαρείας, ''Eusébios tés Kaisareías''; AD 260/265 – 339/340), also known as Eusebius Pamphili (from the grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος τοῦ Παμϕίλου) ...

' work consists of two books: the ''
'', a summary of history in annalist form, and the ''Chronikoi Kanones'', tables of years and events. St. Jerome translated the tables into Latin as the ''
ChroniconIn historiography
Historiography is the study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers ho ...
'', probably adding some information of his own from unknown sources. Livy's dates appear in ''Jerome's Chronicon.''
The main problem with the information given in the
manuscript
A manuscript (abbreviated MS for singular and MSS for plural) was, traditionally, any document written by hand – or, once practical typewriter
A typewriter is a or machine for characters. Typically, a typewriter has an array ...

s is that, between them, they often give different dates for the same events or different events, do not include the same material entirely, and reformat what they do include. A date may be in ''Ab Urbe Condita'' or in
Olympiad
An Olympiad ( el, Ὀλυμπιάς, ''Olympiás'') is a period of four years associated with the Olympic Games
The modern Olympic Games or Olympics (french: Jeux olympiques) are leading international sporting events featuring summer and ...

s or in some other form, such as age. These variations may have occurred through scribal error or scribal license. Some material has been inserted under the aegis of
Eusebius
Eusebius of Caesarea (; grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος τῆς Καισαρείας, ''Eusébios tés Kaisareías''; AD 260/265 – 339/340), also known as Eusebius Pamphili (from the grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος τοῦ Παμϕίλου) ...

.
The topic of manuscript variants is a large and specialized one, on which authors of works on Livy seldom care to linger. As a result, standard information in a standard rendition is used, which gives the impression of a standard set of dates for Livy. There are no such dates. A typical presumption is of a birth in the 2nd year of the 180th Olympiad and a death in the first year of the 199th Olympiad, which are coded 180.2 and 199.1 respectively.
All sources use the same first
Olympiad
An Olympiad ( el, Ὀλυμπιάς, ''Olympiás'') is a period of four years associated with the Olympic Games
The modern Olympic Games or Olympics (french: Jeux olympiques) are leading international sporting events featuring summer and ...

, 776/775–773/772 BC by the modern calendar. By a complex formula (made so by the 0 reference point not falling on the border of an Olympiad), these codes correspond to 59 BC for the birth, 17 AD for the death. In another manuscript the birth is in 180.4, or 57 BC.
Notes
References
Bibliography
*
* .
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
Works by Livy at Perseus Digital Library*
*
*
*
{{DEFAULTSORT:Livy
1st-century BC births
10s deaths
Year of birth uncertain
This category contains individuals whose year of birth is uncertain or disputed.
{{CatAutoTOC
Articles missing birth or death information
Uncertain ...
Year of death uncertain
Category, plural categories, may refer to:
Philosophy and general uses
*Categorization, categories in cognitive science, information science and generally
*Category of being
*Categories (Aristotle), ''Categories'' (Aristotle)
*Category (Kant)
* ...
Golden Age Latin writers
Writers from Padua
Latin historians
1st-century BC historians
1st-century historians
1st-century BC Romans
1st-century RomansPeople of the Roman Empire in the 1st century
{{CatAutoTOC
Roman people by century, 01
1st-century people by nationality, Roman
People of the Roman Empire, 1st century
1st century in the Roman Empire, People ...
Livii
Ancient Romans from Padua