Linguistic distance

Linguistic distance is how different one language or dialect is from another. Although they lack a uniform approach to quantifying linguistic distance between languages, practitioners of linguistics use the concept in a variety of linguistic situations, such as learning additional languages, historical linguistics, language-based conflicts and the effects of language differences on trade.

Measures

Lexicostatistics

The proposed measures used for linguistic distance reflect varying understandings of the term itself. One approach is based on mutual intelligibility, i.e. the ability of speakers of one language to understand the other language. With this, the higher the linguistic distance, the lower is the level of mutual intelligibility.

Because cognate words play an important role in mutual intelligibility between languages, these figure prominently in such analyses. The higher the percentage of cognate (as opposed to non-cognate) words in the two languages with respect to one another, the lower is their linguistic distance. Also, the greater the degree of grammatical relatedness (i.e. the cognates mean roughly similar things) and lexical relatedness (i.e. the cognates are easily discernible as related words), the lower is the linguistic distance. As an example of this, the Hindustani word ''pānch'' is grammatically identical and lexically similar (but non-identical) to its cognate Punjabi and Persian word ''panj'' as well as to the lexically dissimilar but still grammatically identical Greek ''pent-'' List of Greek and Latin roots in English#P and English ''five''. As another example, the English ''dish'' and German ''tisch'' 'table' are lexically (phonologically) similar but grammatically (semantically) dissimilar. Cognates in related languages can even be identical in form, but semantically distinct, such as ''caldo'' and ''largo'', which mean respectively 'hot' and 'wide' in Italian but 'broth, soup' and 'long' in Spanish. Using a statistical approach (called lexicostatistics) by comparing each language's mass of words, distances can be calculated between them. In technical terms, what is calculated is the Levenshtein distance. Based on this, one study compared both Afrikaans and West Frisian with Dutch to see which was closer to Dutch. It determined that the Dutch and Afrikaans (mutual distance of 20.9%) were considerably closer than Dutch and West Frisian (mutual distance of 34.2%).

However, lexicostatistical methods, which are based on retentions from a common proto-language – and not innovations – are problematic due to a number of reasons, so some linguists argue they cannot be relied upon during the tracing of a phylogenetic tree (for example, highest retention rates can sometimes be found in the opposite, peripheral ends of a language family). Unusual innovativeness or conservativeness of a language can distort linguistic distance and the assumed separation date, examples being Romani language and East Baltic languages respectively. On the one hand, continued adjacency of closely related languages after their separation can make some loanwords 'invisible' (indistinguishable from cognates, see etymological nativization), therefore, from lexicostatistical point of view these languages appear less distant then they actually are (examples being Finnic and Saami languages). On the other hand, strong foreign influence of languages spreading far from their homeland can make them share fewer inherited words than they ought to (examples being Hungarian and Samoyedic languages in the East Uralic branch).

Other internal aspects

Besides cognates, other aspects that are often measured are similarities of syntax and written forms. ''... vocabulary, grammar, written form, syntax and myriad other statistics ... this scalar measure of "linguisitic distance" is demonstrated through an analysis of the determinants of English language proficiency among immigrants ...''

To overcome the aforementioned problems of the lexicostatistical methods, Donald Ringe, Tandy Warnow and Luay Nakhleh developed a complex phylogenetical method relying on phonological and morphological innovations in 2000s.

Language learning

A 2005 paper by economists Barry Chiswick and Paul Miller attempted to put forth a metric for linguistic distances that was based on empirical observations of how rapidly speakers of a given language gained proficiency in another one when immersed in a society that overwhelmingly communicated in the latter language. In this study, the speed of English language acquisition was studied for immigrants of various linguistic backgrounds in the United States and Canada.

See also

* Abstand and ausbau languages
* Language transfer
* Second-language acquisition
* Historical linguistics

References

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Applied linguistics
Historical linguistics
Quantitative linguistics
Language acquisition
Language comparison