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Riau-Lingga Sultanate ( Malay/ Indonesian: کسلطانن رياوليڠݢ, ''Kesultanan Riau-Lingga''), also known as the Lingga-Riau Sultanate, Riau Sultanate or Lingga Sultanate was a Malay
sultanate This article includes a list of successive Islamic states and Muslim dynasties beginning with the time of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (570–632 CE) and the early Muslim conquests that spread Islam outside of the Arabian Peninsula, and continuin ...
that existed from 1824 to 1911, before being dissolved following Dutch intervention. The sultanate came into existence as a result of the partition of the Johor-Riau Sultanate that separated Peninsular Johor, together with the island of
Singapore Singapore (), officially the Republic of Singapore, is a sovereign island country and city-state in maritime Southeast Asia. It lies about one degree of latitude () north of the equator, off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, bor ...
, from the Riau archipelago. This partition followed the succession dispute following the death of Mahmud III of Johor, when Abdul Rahman was crowned as the first Sultan of Riau-Lingga. The maritime kingdom was recognised by both the
British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies. ** Britishness, the British identity and common culture * British English, ...
and the
Dutch Dutch commonly refers to: * Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands * Dutch people () * Dutch language () Dutch may also refer to: Places * Dutch, West Virginia, a community in the United States * Pennsylvania Dutch Country People E ...
following the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. Its historical territory is almost parallel to the present-day
Riau Islands Province The Riau Islands ( id, Kepulauan Riau) is a province of Indonesia. It comprises a total of 1,796 islands scattered between Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, and Borneo including the Riau Archipelago. Situated on one of the world's busiest shipping ...
, Indonesia.


History


Background

The Riau Archipelago became a part of the
Malaccan Sultanate The Malacca Sultanate ( ms, Kesultanan Melaka; Jawi script: ) was a Malay sultanate based in the modern-day state of Malacca, Malaysia. Conventional historical thesis marks as the founding year of the sultanate by King of Singapura, Paramesw ...
after the expansion by
Tun Perak Bendahara Paduka Raja Tun Perak (died 1498) was the fifth and most famous bendahara, a Malay rank similar to a prime minister, of the Sultanate of Malacca. He served under four sultans ( Sultan Muzzafar Shah, Sultan Mansur Shah, Sultan Alaudd ...
in the 15th century, following the decline of the Srivijaya Empire. After the fall of Malacca at the hands of the Portuguese, the axis of regional power was inherited by the Johor Sultanate. During the golden age of Johor, the kingdom stretched across half of the Malay Peninsula, eastern Sumatra, Singapore, Bangka, Jambi and the Riau Islands. According to the 1849 Johor Annals, on 27 September 1673 the Laksamana (admiral) of Johor, Tun Abdul Jamil, was ordered by Abdul Jalil Shah III to found a settlement in Sungai Carang, Ulu Riau, on Bintan Island. The settlement in Sungai Carang was later known as Riau Lama. Initially a fortress to protect the Johor Empire, Riau Lama then prospered and became an increasingly prominent
entrepôt An ''entrepôt'' (; ) or transshipment port is a port, city, or trading post where merchandise may be imported, stored, or traded, usually to be exported again. Such cities often sprang up and such ports and trading posts often developed into c ...
for regional trade in the
Strait of Malacca The Strait of Malacca is a narrow stretch of water, 500 mi (800 km) long and from 40 to 155 mi (65–250 km) wide, between the Malay Peninsula (Peninsular Malaysia) to the northeast and the Indonesian island of Sumatra to the southwest, connec ...
. Ulu Riau became the capital of Johor during the reign of Sultan Ibrahim when he relocated the capital from Batu Sawar,
Kota Tinggi Kota Tinggi is a town and capital of Kota Tinggi District, Johor, Malaysia. Kota Tinggi is also the name of the district, Kota Tinggi District, where the town is situated. Kuala Sedili or Tanjung Sedili, a small fishing town located 37 km n ...
in
Peninsular A peninsula (; ) is a landform that extends from a mainland and is surrounded by water on most, but not all of its borders. A peninsula is also sometimes defined as a piece of land bordered by water on three of its sides. Peninsulas exist on all ...
Johor after the old capital was sacked by Jambi forces on 4 October 1722. Riau Lama then became the capital of the empire for 65 years, from 1722 to 1787. The importance of Lingga began during the reign of Mahmud Shah III. In 1788, he relocated the capital from Riau Lama, Ulu Riau, Bintan to Daik, Lingga. The Sultan did this as he believed that he was being reduced to a mere
figurehead In politics, a figurehead is a person who ''de jure'' (in name or by law) appears to hold an important and often supremely powerful title or office, yet ''de facto'' (in reality) exercises little to no actual power. This usually means that they ...
under the Dutch. He then requested aid from his distant relative, Raja Ismail, a local ruler of Tempasuk to organise a successful campaign against the Dutch. Out of fear of retaliation by the Dutch, he organised a mass transfer of the populace: the Sultan left for Lingga with 2000 people, the
bendahara Bendahara ( Jawi: بنداهارا) is an administrative position within classical Malay kingdoms comparable to a vizier before the intervention of European powers during the 19th century. A bendahara was appointed by a sultan and was a heredi ...
(high advisor) went to
Pahang Pahang (; Jawi: , Pahang Hulu Malay: ''Paha'', Pahang Hilir Malay: ''Pahaeng'', Ulu Tembeling Malay: ''Pahaq)'' officially Pahang Darul Makmur with the Arabic honorific ''Darul Makmur'' (Jawi: , "The Abode of Tranquility") is a sultanate and ...
with 1000 people while others headed to
Terengganu Terengganu (; Terengganu Malay: ''Tranung'', Jawi: ), formerly spelled Trengganu or Tringganu, is a sultanate and constitutive state of federal Malaysia. The state is also known by its Arabic honorific, ''Dāru l- Īmān'' ("Abode of Faith" ...
. When the Dutch arrived in Riau, there were only a few Chinese planters left, who persuaded the Dutch not to chase the Malays. The Sultan then developed Lingga and welcomed new settlers to the island. Dato Kaya Megat was appointed as the new Bendahara of Lingga. New dwellings were constructed, roads were built and buildings were improved. He found unprecedented new wealth when tin mines were organised in Singkep. Both the British and Dutch then restored his claim on the Riau island. He began to revive maritime trade discreetly with the British as a major source of commodities, especially valuable
tin Tin is a chemical element with the symbol Sn (from la, stannum) and atomic number 50. Tin is a silvery-coloured metal. Tin is soft enough to be cut with little force and a bar of tin can be bent by hand with little effort. When bent, t ...
, gambier and
spices A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring or coloring food. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, or stems of plants used for flavoring or as a garnish. Spices are ...
.


Succession crisis and Sultan Abdul Rahman

In 1812, the Johor-Riau Sultanate experienced a succession crisis. The death of the Mahmud Shah III in Lingga left no
heir apparent An heir apparent, often shortened to heir, is a person who is first in an order of succession and cannot be displaced from inheriting by the birth of another person; a person who is first in the order of succession but can be displaced by the b ...
. Royal custom required that the succeeding sultan must be present at his predecessor's deathbed. However at the time Mahmud Shah III died, the eldest prince, Tengku Hussein, was in
Pahang Pahang (; Jawi: , Pahang Hulu Malay: ''Paha'', Pahang Hilir Malay: ''Pahaeng'', Ulu Tembeling Malay: ''Pahaq)'' officially Pahang Darul Makmur with the Arabic honorific ''Darul Makmur'' (Jawi: , "The Abode of Tranquility") is a sultanate and ...
to celebrate his marriage to the daughter of the
Bendahara Bendahara ( Jawi: بنداهارا) is an administrative position within classical Malay kingdoms comparable to a vizier before the intervention of European powers during the 19th century. A bendahara was appointed by a sultan and was a heredi ...
(governor). The other candidate was Tengku Hussein's half-brother, Tengku Abdul Rahman. To complicate matters, neither of the candidates was of full royal blood. The mother of Tengku Hussein, Cik Mariam, owed her origin to a Balinese slave lady and a Bugis commoner. Tengku Abdul Rahman had a similarly
lowborn ''Lowborn'' (stylized as ''lowborn'') is the seventh studio album by the American alternative rock band Anberlin. The album was scheduled for release on June 24, 2014, but was pushed back to July 22, 2014. This album was produced by the band. The ...
mother, Cik Halimah. The only unquestionably royal wife and
consort __NOTOC__ Consort may refer to: Music * "The Consort" (Rufus Wainwright song), from the 2000 album ''Poses'' * Consort of instruments, term for instrumental ensembles * Consort song (musical), a characteristic English song form, late 16th–earl ...
of Mahmud Shah was Engku Puteri Hamidah, whose only child had died an hour after birth. In the following chaos, Engku Puteri was expected to install Tengku Hussein as the next sultan, because he had been preferred by the late Mahmud Shah. Based on the royal '' adat'' (customary observance), the consent of Engku Puteri was crucial as she was the holder of the ''Cogan'' (
Royal Regalia Regalia is a Latin plurale tantum word that has different definitions. In one rare definition, it refers to the exclusive privileges of a sovereign. The word originally referred to the elaborate formal dress and dress accessories of a sovereig ...
) of Johor-Riau, and the installation of a new sultan was only valid if it took place with the regalia. The regalia was fundamental to the installation of the sultan; it was a symbol of power, legitimacy and the sovereignty of the state. Nonetheless, Yang Dipertuan Muda Jaafar (then-
viceroy A viceroy () is an official who reigns over a polity in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix ''vice-'', meaning "in the place of" and the French word ''roy'', meaning " ...
of the sultanate) supported the reluctant Tengku Abdul Rahman, adhering to the rules of royal protocol, as he had been present at the late Sultan's deathbed. Unwilling and furious, the outspoken Queen is then reported to have said, "Who elected Abdul Rahman as sovereign of Johor? Was it my brother Raja Jaafar or by what law of succession has it happened? It is owing to this act of injustice that the ancient empire of Johor is fast falling to decay". Rivalry between the British and the Dutch now came into play. The British had earlier gained Malacca from the Dutch under the Treaty of The Hague in 1795 and saw an opportunity to increase their regional influence. They crowned Tengku Hussein in Singapore, and he took the title Hussein Shah of Johor. The British were actively involved in the Johor-Riau administration between 1812 and 1818, and their intervention further strengthened their dominance in the Strait of Malacca. The British recognised Johor-Riau as a
sovereign state A sovereign state or sovereign country, is a political entity represented by one central government that has supreme legitimate authority over territory. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined te ...
and offered to pay Engku Puteri 50,000 Ringgits ( Spanish Coins) for the royal regalia, which she refused. Seeing the diplomatic advantage gained in the region by the British, the Dutch responded by crowning Tengku Abdul Rahman as sultan instead. They also obtained, at the
Congress of Vienna The Congress of Vienna (, ) of 1814–1815 was a series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss and agree upon a possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon B ...
, a withdrawal of British recognition of Johor-Riau sovereignty. To further curtail the British domination over the region, the Dutch entered into an agreement with the Johor-Riau Sultanate on 27 November 1818. The agreement stipulated that the Dutch were to be the paramount leaders of the Johor-Riau Sultanate and that only
Dutch people The Dutch ( Dutch: ) are an ethnic group and nation native to the Netherlands. They share a common history and culture and speak the Dutch language. Dutch people and their descendants are found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in Aru ...
could engage in trade with the kingdom. A Dutch garrison was then stationed in Riau. The Dutch also secured an agreement that Dutch consent was required for all future appointments of Johor-Riau Sultans. This agreement was signed by Yang Dipertuan Muda Raja Jaafar representing Abdul Rahman, without the sultan's consent or knowledge. Just as the British had done, both the Dutch and Yang Dipertuan Muda then desperately tried to win the royal regalia from Engku Puteri. The reluctant Abdul Rahman, believing he was not the rightful heir, decided to move from Lingga to
Terengganu Terengganu (; Terengganu Malay: ''Tranung'', Jawi: ), formerly spelled Trengganu or Tringganu, is a sultanate and constitutive state of federal Malaysia. The state is also known by its Arabic honorific, ''Dāru l- Īmān'' ("Abode of Faith" ...
, claiming that he wanted to celebrate his marriage. The Dutch, who desired to control the Johor-Riau Empire, feared losing momentum because of the absence of mere regalia. They therefore ordered Timmerman Tyssen, the Dutch Governor of Malacca, to seize Penyengat in October 1822 and remove the royal regalia from Tengku Hamidah by force. The regalia was then stored in the ''Kroonprins'' (Dutch: Crown Prince's) Fort in Tanjung Pinang. Engku Puteri was reported to have written a letter to Van Der Capellen, the Dutch Governor in Batavia, about this issue. With the royal regalia in Dutch hands, Abdul Rahman was invited from Terengganu and proclaimed as the Sultan of Johor, Riau-Lingga and Pahang on 27 November 1822. Hence, the legitimate ruler of the Johor-Riau Empire was now Abdul Rahman, rather than the British-backed Hussein. This led to the partition of Johor-Riau under the Anglo-Dutch treaty of 1824, by which the region north of the
Singapore Strait The Singapore Strait is a , strait between the Strait of Malacca in the west and the South China Sea in the east. Singapore is on the north of the channel, and the Indonesian Riau Islands are on the south. The two countries share a maritime ...
including the island of Singapore and Johor were to be under British influence, while the south of the strait along with Riau and Lingga were to be controlled by the Dutch. By installing two sultans from the same kingdom, both the British and the Dutch effectively destroyed the Johor-Riau polity and satisfied their colonial ambitions. Under the treaty, Tengku Abdul Rahman was crowned as the Sultan of Riau-Lingga, bearing the name of Sultan Abdul Rahman, with the royal seat in Daik, Lingga. Tengku Hussein, backed by the British, was installed as the Sultan of Johore and ruled over Singapore and the Peninsular Johor. He later ceded Singapore to the British in return for their support during the dispute. Both sultans of Johor and Riau acted mainly as puppet monarchs under the guidance of the colonial powers.


Sultan Mahmud IV and the crisis of 1857

During the reign of Mahmud IV, increasing tensions developed with Dutch administrators. The Sultan felt that his kingdom was being heavily manipulated by the Dutch and the Yang Dipertuan Muda, and wanted to throw off their yoke. He frequently traveled to Singapore,
Terengganu Terengganu (; Terengganu Malay: ''Tranung'', Jawi: ), formerly spelled Trengganu or Tringganu, is a sultanate and constitutive state of federal Malaysia. The state is also known by its Arabic honorific, ''Dāru l- Īmān'' ("Abode of Faith" ...
and
Pahang Pahang (; Jawi: , Pahang Hulu Malay: ''Paha'', Pahang Hilir Malay: ''Pahaeng'', Ulu Tembeling Malay: ''Pahaq)'' officially Pahang Darul Makmur with the Arabic honorific ''Darul Makmur'' (Jawi: , "The Abode of Tranquility") is a sultanate and ...
to gain recognition for his rule by the British, and support from his circle of kin in other Malay Royal Houses against the viceregal house of Riau, who came from Bugis stock. He also asserted his claim to be the rightful heir of the preceding Johor-Riau throne, rather than Hussein Shah of Johor. The sultan's actions were met with suspicion by the British, who warned the Dutch that as their
vassal A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain ...
, he was in breach of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. Angered and embarrassed by the Sultan, the Dutch then prohibited him from travelling without their consent. He ignored this prohibition. The crisis reached its peak in 1857 when, following the death of the Yang Dipertuan Muda, the Sultan delayed in naming his successor. This was due to the fact that the Sultan do not approve of any of the candidates offered by the Yang Dipertuan Muda's family. The Sultan then tried to name a candidate from Singapore and claimed that the revenues gained by the Yang Dipertuan Muda ought to be paid to him. The final blow came when he decided to sail to Singapore without naming a viceroy, despite the Dutch travel prohibition. The Dutch therefore deposed him on 7 October 1857 while he was in Singapore. He then remained in Singapore and sought mediation with the Dutch, but the British decided not to interfere in the issue.


Sultan Badrul Alam Syah II

In Riau, the Dutch and Yang Dipertuan Muda then enthroned Mahmud IV's uncle, Sultan Badrul Alam Syah II as the fourth Sultan of Riau (1857–1883). He was assisted by Yang Dipertuan Muda IX Raja Haji Abdullah (1857–1858). During his reign, Daik found unprecedented prosperity. The Sultan improved the local economy by encouraging rice cultivation and opium preparation. He also possessed a small armada to promote trade relations. He introduced
sago Sago () is a starch extracted from the pith, or spongy core tissue, of various tropical palm stems, especially those of ''Metroxylon sagu''. It is a major staple food for the lowland peoples of New Guinea and the Maluku Islands, where it is c ...
from the
Moluccas The Maluku Islands (; Indonesian: ''Kepulauan Maluku'') or the Moluccas () are an archipelago in the east of Indonesia. Tectonically they are located on the Halmahera Plate within the Molucca Sea Collision Zone. Geographically they are located ...
to the local people, which he believed was a better crop than rice as a staple food, as rice can be only harvested once yearly. Daik then become a regional trade centre attracting traders from China,
Celebes Sulawesi (), also known as Celebes (), is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the world's eleventh-largest island, it is situated east of Borneo, west of the Maluku Islands, and south of Mindanao and the Sul ...
,
Borneo Borneo (; id, Kalimantan) is the third-largest island in the world and the largest in Asia. At the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, in relation to major Indonesian islands, it is located north of Java, west of Sulawesi, and ea ...
, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra,
Pagaruyung Pagaruyung (ڤاڬارويوڠ; also Pagarruyung, Pagar Ruyung and, Malayapura or Malayupura) was the seat of the Minangkabau kings of Western Sumatra, though little is known about it. Modern Pagaruyung is a village in ''Tanjung Emas'' subdist ...
,
Java Java (; id, Jawa, ; jv, ꦗꦮ; su, ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 151.6 million people, Java is the world's mos ...
, Siak and
Pahang Pahang (; Jawi: , Pahang Hulu Malay: ''Paha'', Pahang Hilir Malay: ''Pahaeng'', Ulu Tembeling Malay: ''Pahaq)'' officially Pahang Darul Makmur with the Arabic honorific ''Darul Makmur'' (Jawi: , "The Abode of Tranquility") is a sultanate and ...
. This caused the Dutch concern, as they feared that the sultanate might gather enough supplies and forces to defeat them. Due to this fear, the Dutch appointed an assistant resident to be stationed in Tanjung Buton, a port close to Mepar Island, 6 kilometres from the Riau administrative centre.


The rise of nationalism

The globalisation of the 19th century opened new opportunities for the Riau-Lingga Sultanate. Proximity to cosmopolitan Singapore, just 40 miles away, shaped the political climate of the kingdom, giving Riau Malays an opportunity to familiarise themselves with new ideas from the
Middle East The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Province), East Thrace (Europ ...
. The opening of Suez Canal meant a journey to
Mecca Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow ...
via Port Said,
Egypt Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Medit ...
and Singapore could take no more than a fortnight; thus these cities became major ports for the Hajj pilgrimage. Inspired by the experience and intellectual progress attained in the Middle East and influenced by the Pan-Islamism brotherhood, the Riau Malay intelligentsia established the Roesidijah (Club) Riouw in 1895. The association was born as a literary circle to develop the religious, cultural and intellectual needs of the sultanate, but as it matured, it changed into a more critical organisation and began to address the fight against Dutch rule in the kingdom. The era was marked by growing awareness among the elite and rulers of the importance of ''watan'' (
homeland A homeland is a place where a cultural, national, or racial identity has formed. The definition can also mean simply one's country of birth. When used as a proper noun, the Homeland, as well as its equivalents in other languages, often has ethn ...
) and one's duty towards his or her native soil. In order to succeed to establish a ''watan'', the land must be
independent Independent or Independents may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Artist groups * Independents (artist group), a group of modernist painters based in the New Hope, Pennsylvania, area of the United States during the early 1930s * Independ ...
and sovereign, a far-cry from a Dutch-controlled sultanate. Moreover, it was also viewed that the penetration of the
west West or Occident is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth. Etymology The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some ...
in the state was slowly tearing apart the fabric of the Malay-Muslim identity. By the dawn of the 20th century, the association had become a political tool for rising against the colonial power, with Raja Muhammad Thahir and Raja Ali Kelana acting as its backbone. Diplomatic missions were sent to the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
in 1883, 1895 and in 1905 to secure the liberation of the kingdom by Raja Ali Kelana, accompanied by a renowned Pattani-born
Ulema In Islam, the ''ulama'' (; ar, علماء ', singular ', "scholar", literally "the learned ones", also spelled ''ulema''; feminine: ''alimah'' ingularand ''aalimath'' lural are the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious ...
, Syeikh Wan Ahmad Fatani. The Dutch Colonial Office in Tanjung Pinang labelled the organisation as a ''versetpartai'' (Dutch: Left-leaning party). The organisation also won momentous support from the ''Mohakamah'' (Malay Judiciary) and the ''Dewan Kerajaan'' (Sultanate Administrative Board). It critically monitored and researched every step taken by the Dutch Colonial Resident in the sultanate's administration, which led to Dutch outrage. The movement was an early form of
Malay nationalism Malay nationalism ( Malay: ''Semangat Kebangsaan Melayu'' Jawi: سمڠت كبڠساءن ملايو ) refers to the nationalism that focused overwhelmingly on the Malay anticolonial struggle, motivated by the nationalist ideal of creating a ''B ...
. Non-violence and
passive resistance Nonviolent resistance (NVR), or nonviolent action, sometimes called civil resistance, is the practice of achieving goals such as social change through symbolic protests, civil disobedience, economic or political noncooperation, satyagraha, ...
measures were adopted by the association. The main method of the movement was to hold symbolic boycotts. The Dutch then branded the movement as ''leidelek verset'' (Dutch: Passive resistance), and passive acts such as ignoring the raising of the Dutch flag were met with anger by the Batavia-based ''Raad van Indie'' (Dutch East Indies Council) and the Advisor on Native Affairs, Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje. In a ''geheim'' (Dutch: secret) letter 660/G, dated 7 May 1904 to the Dutch East Indies Council, Hurgronje advocated that the sultanate and association be crushed as resistance in the earlier
Aceh War The Aceh War ( id, Perang Aceh), also known as the Dutch War or the Infidel War (1873–1913), was an armed military conflict between the Sultanate of Aceh and the Kingdom of the Netherlands which was triggered by discussions between represen ...
had been. Hurgronje justified this with several arguments, among which were that since 1902 the members of the Roesidijah Klub would gather around the royal court and refuse to raise the Dutch flag on government vessels. The Dutch Colonial Resident in Riau, A.L. Van Hasselt advised the Governor of Netherlands East Indies that the Sultan was an opponent to the Dutch and immersed with a group of hardcore ''verzetparty''. Later, on 1 January 1903, the Dutch Colonial Resident found that the Dutch flag was not being raised during his visit to the royal palace. In his report to the governor he wrote; "it seems that he (Sultan Abdul Rahman II) acted as if he was a sovereign king and he raises his own flag". Based on several records in the Indonesian National Archive, there were some reports that the Sultan then apologised to the governor over the "flag incident". In its reply to the ''geheim'' letter numbered 1036/G 9 August 1904, the Dutch East Indies Council agreed on the proposal put forward by Hurgronje and authorised action against the nationalist association. Nonetheless, advice to the Sultan was to be first to put forward a military action towards the kingdom and association. The council also advised the Dutch Resident in Riau to avoid entering contractual agreement before achieving consensus with the ruling elite of the Riau-Lingga Sultanate.


Dissolution by the Dutch

On 18 May 1905, the Dutch demanded a new agreement with the sultan, stipulating further limits on the powers of the Riau-Lingga Sultanate, requiring that the
Dutch flag The national flag of the Netherlands ( nl, de Nederlandse vlag) is a horizontal tricolour of red, white, and blue. The current design originates as a variant of the late 16th century orange-white-blue '' Prinsenvlag'' ("Prince's Flag"), evo ...
must be raised higher than the flag of Riau, and specifying that Dutch officials should be given supreme honour in the land. The agreement further stipulated that the Riau-Lingga Sultanate was a mere ''achazat'' (Dutch: loan) from the Dutch Government. The agreement was drawn up due to the fact that the appointment of Sultan Abdul Rahman II (1885–1911) had not been made with the consent of the Dutch and he was also clearly against colonial rule. The Dutch insisted that the sultan sign the agreement, but after consulting the fellow rulers of the state, Engku Kelana, Raja Ali, Raja Hitam and other members of the ruling elite, he refused, and decided to form a military regiment under the leadership of the prince regent, Tengku Umar. During a visit of the Dutch Resident's visit to Penyengat, the sultan then, on his own authority and without Dutch approval, summoned the rulers of Reteh, Gaung and Mandah, making the Resident feel as if he was being besieged by the sultanate. The affiliates of the Roesidijah Klub, mainly the members of the administrative class, were thus able to slowly manoeuvre Abdul Rahman, once a supporter of Dutch rule, to act against the colonial power's wishes. The bold resolution shown by the sultan and fellow officials was not welcomed by the Dutch. According to the journal kept by the ''Syahbandar'' (
Harbourmaster A harbourmaster (or harbormaster, see spelling differences) is an official responsible for enforcing the regulations of a particular harbour or port, in order to ensure the safety of navigation, the security of the harbour and the correct opera ...
), the decision of the sultan was deplored by the Dutch Resident, G.F Bruijn Kops who stated "they molded the sultan to retaliate (against the Dutch), so a retaliation (by the Dutch) shall be administered". On the morning of 11 February 1911, when the sultan and the court officials were in Daik to perform the '' Mandi Safar'' (a ritual purifying bath), Dutch Naval ships of Java, Tromp and Koetai
Torpedo Boat A torpedo boat is a relatively small and fast naval ship designed to carry torpedoes into battle. The first designs were steam-powered craft dedicated to ramming enemy ships with explosive spar torpedoes. Later evolutions launched variants of ...
anchored in Penyengat Island and deployed hundreds of pribumi soldiers (Dutch: ''marechausse'') to lay siege to the royal court. This was followed by the arrival of Dutch official K.M Voematra from Tanjung Pinang at the Roesidijah Club headquarters to announce the deposition of Abdul Rahman II. Once the letter of deposition had been read by the Dutch official, he described the crown prince and other members of the Roesidijah Klub as "individuals who harbour animosity against his excellency the Governor of Netherlands Indies" (''orang berniat bermusuhan dengan Sri Padoeka Gouvenrnement Hindia Nederland''). The Dutch then seized the official coronation regalia, and to prevent their seizure by the Dutch, many official buildings were deliberately razed by members of the court themselves. A mass exodus of civilians and officials to
Johor Johor (; ), also spelled as Johore, is a state of Malaysia in the south of the Malay Peninsula. Johor has land borders with the Malaysian states of Pahang to the north and Malacca and Negeri Sembilan to the northwest. Johor shares maritime ...
and Singapore then took place. To avoid violence and the death of civilians in Pulau Penyengat, the sultan and his officials decided not to fight the Dutch troops. The sultan and ''Tengku Ampuan'' (the Queen) left Pulau Penyengat and sailed to Singapore in the royal vessel ''Sri Daik'', while Crown Prince Raja Ali Kelana, Khalid Hitam and the resistance movement in Bukit Bahjah followed a couple of days later. The deposed Abdul Rahman II was forced to live in exile in Singapore.


Aftermath

The Dutch officially annexed the sultanate to avoid future claims from the monarchy. ''Rechtreek bestuur'' (Dutch: Direct rule) over the Riau Archipelago began in 1913, and the province was administered as ''Residentie Riouw en Onderhoorigheden'' (Dutch: Residence of Riau and Dependencies). The Dutch Residence comprised Tanjung Pinang, Lingga, Riau and Indragiri, while the Tudjuh Archipelago was administered separately as "Afdeeling Poelau-Toedjoeh" (Dutch: The Division of Pulau Tudjuh). The sultan appealed to the British administration for aid, but although he was given refuge and protection in Singapore, the British were reluctant to interfere. Diplomatic missions were sent to the
Empire of Japan The also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was a historical nation-state and great power that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 until the enactment of the post-World War II Constitution of Japan, 1947 constitu ...
by Raja Khalid Hitam in 1911 and to the Ottoman Empire by Raja Ali Kelana in 1913 to call for the restoration of the sultanate. At one point the sultan even wanted to abdicate in favour of his son, Tengku Besar, as these diplomatic initiatives seemed to be in vain. The sultan died in Singapore in 1930. Several members of the royal family later asserted their claim to be recognised as the sultan.


Restoration attempts and the Dewan Riow

When
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing ...
broke out, the Dutch initially seemed reluctant to defend their territories in the
East Indies The East Indies (or simply the Indies), is a term used in historical narratives of the Age of Discovery. The Indies refers to various lands in the East or the Eastern hemisphere, particularly the islands and mainlands found in and around ...
. This led the British to consider creating a
buffer state A buffer state is a country geographically lying between two rival or potentially hostile great powers. Its existence can sometimes be thought to prevent conflict between them. A buffer state is sometimes a mutually agreed upon area lying between ...
in Riau. They discussed prospects for a restoration with Tengku Omar and Tengku Besar, descendants of the sultans, who were then based in
Terengganu Terengganu (; Terengganu Malay: ''Tranung'', Jawi: ), formerly spelled Trengganu or Tringganu, is a sultanate and constitutive state of federal Malaysia. The state is also known by its Arabic honorific, ''Dāru l- Īmān'' ("Abode of Faith" ...
. However, as the war approached
Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical south-eastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of mainlan ...
, the Dutch actively engaged in the defensive system alongside the British, and the British decided to shelve the restoration plan. In the aftermath of the war and the struggle against Dutch rule, several exile associations collectively known as the ''Gerakan Kesultanan Riau'' (Riau Sultanate Movement) emerged in Singapore, planning for a restoration. Some of the groups dated from as early as the dissolution of the sultanate, but started to gain momentum following the post-world war confusion and politics. From the ashes of political uncertainty and fragility in the East Indies following the
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing ...
, a
royalist A royalist supports a particular monarch as head of state for a particular kingdom, or of a particular dynastic claim. In the abstract, this position is royalism. It is distinct from monarchism, which advocates a monarchical system of governm ...
faction known as ''Persatoean Melayu Riouw Sedjati'' (PMRS) (Association of the Indigenous Riau Malays) emerged to call for the restoration of the Riau-Lingga Sultanate. The council was financially backed by rich Riau Malay émigrés and Chinese merchants who hoped to obtain tin concession. Initially founded in High Street, Singapore, the association moved to Tanjung Pinang, Riau with the unprecedented approval by the Dutch administrators. Based in Tanjung Pinang, the group managed to gain the consent of the Dutch for self-governance in the region with the foundation of the ''Dewan Riouw'' (Dutch: Riouw Raad, English: Riouw Council). The Riouw Raad was the
devolved Devolution is the statutory delegation of powers from the central government of a sovereign state to govern at a subnational level, such as a regional or local level. It is a form of administrative decentralization. Devolved territories ...
national
unicameral Unicameralism (from ''uni''- "one" + Latin ''camera'' "chamber") is a type of legislature, which consists of one house or assembly, that legislates and votes as one. Unicameral legislatures exist when there is no widely perceived need for multi ...
legislature of Riau, a position equivalent to a
Parliament In modern politics, and history, a parliament is a legislative body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: representing the electorate, making laws, and overseeing the government via hearings and inquiries. Th ...
. After establishing itself in Tanjung Pinang, the group formed a new organisation known as ''Djawatan Koewasa Pengoeroes Rakjat Riow'' (The Council of Riau People Administration), with the members hailing from Tudjuh Archipelago,
Great Karimun Great Karimun ( id, Karimun Besar), also known as Nuwi Island, is one of the islands in the Riau Islands province of Indonesia, administratively part of Karimun Regency. It lies about 37 km southwest of Singapore, 54 km west of Batam, 24 ...
, Lingga and
Singkep Singkep is an island in the Lingga Archipelago in Indonesia. Its area is . It is separated from the east coast of Sumatra by the Berhala Strait. It is surrounded by islands Posik to the west, I. Serak to the SW, I. Lalang to the South, and I. Sela ...
. This group strongly advocated the restoration of the Riau-Lingga Sultanate after the status of Indonesia became official. The leader of the council, Raja Abdullah, claimed that Riau Malays were neglected at the expense of the non-Riau Indonesians who dominated the upper ranks of the Riau civil administration. By restoring the monarch, they believed the position of Riau Malays would be guarded. The royalist association met with resistance from the
republican Republican can refer to: Political ideology * An advocate of a republic, a type of government that is not a monarchy or dictatorship, and is usually associated with the rule of law. ** Republicanism, the ideology in support of republics or agains ...
group led by Dr. Iljas Datuk Batuah that sent delegates to Singapore to counter the propaganda of sultanate supporters. Based on Indonesian archive records, Dr. Iljas gained approvals from non-Malay newcomers to Riau, including Minang, Javanese, Palembang, and
Batak people Batak is a collective term used to identify a number of closely related Austronesian ethnic groups predominantly found in North Sumatra, Indonesia, who speak Batak languages. The term is used to include the Karo, Pakpak, Simalungun, Toba, ...
. He later formed a group known as the ''Badan Kedaulatan Indonesia Riouw'' (BKRI) (Indonesian Riau Sovereignty Bureau) on 8 October 1945. The organisation sought to absorb the Riau Archipelago into the then- newly independent Indonesia, as the archipelago was still retained by the Dutch. BKRI hoped that the new republican administration under Sukarno would give the pribumis a fair chance to run the local government. The royalist association would not give any public support to the Indonesian movement, as is evident in its refusal to display the ''Bendera Merah-Putih'' ( Indonesian Flag) during the Indonesian Independence Day celebration on 17 August 1947 in Singapore. This led republicans to call the royalists 'pro-Dutch'. The royalists however, maintained that Riau was a Dutch territory and that only the Dutch could support it. The Dutch countered the claims of the BKRI by granting autonomous rule to the Riau Council, in which links with the Dutch would be maintained while a restored sultanate would play a secondary role. The council, created following the decree of the Governor General of the East Indies on 12 July 1947, was inaugurated on 4 August 1947, and represented a major step forward in the revival of the monarchy system. Several key members of the PMRS were elected to the Riau Council alongside their BKRI rivals, the from Tanjung Pinang and Pulau Tujuh, local Malay leaders of Lingga and Dutch officials in Tanjung Pinang. On 23 January 1948, the states of the Bangka Council, the Belitung Council, and the Riau Council merged to form the ''Bangka Belitung and Riau Federation'', which in the following year was admitted as part of the
United States of Indonesia The United States of Indonesia ( nl, Verenigde Staten van Indonesië, id, Republik Indonesia Serikat, abbreviated as RIS), was a short-lived federal state to which the Netherlands formally transferred sovereignty of the Dutch East Indies (exce ...
. The call for revival of the sultanate continued throughout the period of autonomous rule under the Riau Council, although the influence of republicanism also continued to strengthen thru the BKRI delegation in the council, which was the opposition. The appeal of revival began to subside following the dissolution of the ''Bangka Belitung and Riau Federation'' on 4 April 1950. After the official withdrawal by the Dutch in 1950, the Riau Archipelago became ''Keresidenan Riau'' under Central Sumatra Province following official merger by the United States of Indonesia. Being one of the last territories merged into Indonesia, Riau was known as the ''daerah-daerah pulihan'' (recovered regions), and the Riau area became a province in August 1957. In 2002, the offshore islands of the Riau Archipelago, the territory of the former sultanate, became a separate province,
Riau Islands The Riau Islands ( id, Kepulauan Riau) is a province of Indonesia. It comprises a total of 1,796 islands scattered between Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, and Borneo including the Riau Archipelago. Situated on one of the world's busiest shipping lan ...
. The leader of Riau forces, Major Raja Muhammad Yunus, who led the bid to reestablish the sultanate apart from Indonesia fled into exile in Johor after his ill attempt. The geopolitical roots of the Riau Archipelago had molded her nationalist position to be sandwiched between the kindred
monarchist Monarchism is the advocacy of the system of monarchy or monarchical rule. A monarchist is an individual who supports this form of government independently of any specific monarch, whereas one who supports a particular monarch is a royalist. ...
Peninsular
Malay Nationalism Malay nationalism ( Malay: ''Semangat Kebangsaan Melayu'' Jawi: سمڠت كبڠساءن ملايو ) refers to the nationalism that focused overwhelmingly on the Malay anticolonial struggle, motivated by the nationalist ideal of creating a ''B ...
observed across the border in British Malaya with the pro-republic and pan-ethnic
Indonesian Nationalism Indonesian nationalism is an ideology that arose during the Dutch colonial era in the Dutch East Indies which called for the colony's independence and unification as an independent and sovereign nation. This period of nationalist development und ...
manifested in her own Dutch East Indies domain.


Government

The Riau Sultanate had an unusual division of authority at its heart. The Sultan, who was a Malay, acted as
Head of State A head of state (or chief of state) is the public persona who officially embodies a state Foakes, pp. 110–11 " he head of statebeing an embodiment of the State itself or representatitve of its international persona." in its unity and l ...
while the ''Dipertuan Muda/Yamtuan Muda'' (deputy ruler or Viceroy), a position held by the Bugis ruling elite, served as the
Head of Government The head of government is the highest or the second-highest official in the executive branch of a sovereign state, a federated state, or a self-governing colony, autonomous region, or other government who often presides over a cabinet, ...
. (Following the partition of Johor-Riau, the position of Yang Dipertuan Muda was retained only in the Riau-Lingga Sultanate and not in Johor). The sultan's royal palace was located in Penyengat Inderasakti and the Yang Dipertuan Muda resided in Daik, Lingga. The Sultan was dominant in Lingga and its dependencies, while the Bugis Yang Dipertuan Muda controlled Riau (consisting of Bintan, Penyengat and the surrounding islands), with each of them having no claim on the revenues of the other. These spheres of control would only begin to erode during the time of Yang Dipertuan Muda Yusuf Ahmadi. Riau later became the heart of Bugis political influence in the western Malay World. However, the power division between the Malay and the Bugis was not met without any major dispute between the two houses.


Adat

The adat istiadat (custom) called for a
separation of powers Separation of powers refers to the division of a state's government into branches, each with separate, independent powers and responsibilities, so that the powers of one branch are not in conflict with those of the other branches. The typic ...
and a pledge of allegiance called ''Persetiaan Sungai Baru'' (The Oath of Sungai Baru) sworn between the Bugis and the Malays and renewed for five times between 1722 and 1858. Under the adat, only Malays could be Sultan and the position of the Yang Dipertuan Muda was reserved exclusively to the Bugis. The traditional system was retained until the appointment of Abdul Rahman II, the last sultan of Riau-Lingga. Abdul Rahman's father, Raja Muhammad Yusuf, was a Bugis aristocrat and the 10th and the last Yang Dipertuan Muda of Riau. He was married to Tengku Fatimah, the daughter of Sultan Mahmud and the only full-blooded member of the Malay royalty. On 17 September 1883, in wake of the death of Badrul Alam Syah II, the Bugis-Malay elites voted for Tengku Fatimah as his successor, making her the first
queen regnant A queen regnant (plural: queens regnant) is a female monarch, equivalent in rank and title to a king, who reigns '' suo jure'' (in her own right) over a realm known as a "kingdom"; as opposed to a queen consort, who is the wife of a reigni ...
in the history of the empire since the Malaccan period. Nearly a month later, on 13 October, another gathering was convened, and on this occasion Abdul Rahman II, was crowned as the new sultan after Tengku Fatimah voluntarily abdicated in favour of her son. Unusually, because of his parentage, Abdul Rahman II was both sultan and first in line of succession to the Yang Dipertuan Muda position as well. 1895 was the last occasion the pledge of allegiance was sworn, in this instance between the sultan and his father, the last Yang Dipertuan Muda. His father later renounced his position as the Yang Dipertuan Muda and thereafter both roles were combined, symbolising of unity between the Bugis and the Malay dynasties. The pledge of allegiance included the following words:


Yang Dipertuan Muda

The viceregal house of Riau claimed to trace their ancestry from the Bugis Royal House in
Luwu The Kingdom of Luwu (also Luwuq or Wareq) was a polity located in northern part of South Sulawesi. province of Indonesia, on Sulawesi island. It is considered one of the earliest known Bugis kingdom in Sulawesi, founded between 10th and 14th cen ...
,
Celebes Sulawesi (), also known as Celebes (), is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the world's eleventh-largest island, it is situated east of Borneo, west of the Maluku Islands, and south of Mindanao and the Sul ...
. The Bugis prominence in the region began during the reign of Abdu'l-Jalil Rahmat of Johor-Riau, during the period of turbulence the Sultan was killed by Raja Kecil who claimed that he was an offspring of the late Sultan Mahmud. He later descent as the Sultan of old Johor. The death of Abdul Jalil was witnessed by his son, Sulaiman of Johor-Riau, who later then requested aid from the Bugis of Klang to combat Raja Kecil and his troops. The alliance formed between Sulaiman and the Bugis managed to defeat Raja Kecil off from his throne. As the settlement for the debt of honour by Sulaiman of Johor-Riau in 1772, a joint government were structured between the Bugis forces and the nascent community and the native Malays and several
political marriage A marriage of state is a diplomatic marriage or union between two members of different nation-states or internally, between two power blocs, usually in authoritarian societies and is a practice which dates back into ancient times, as far back as ear ...
were formed between the two dynasties. The Bugis chieftain was formally rewarded for his service with the titles of Yang di-Pertuan Muda/Yamtuan Muda (deputy ruler or Viceroy) and Raja Tua (principal prince), receiving the second and third paramount seat in the sultanate. Although the latter title became obsolete, the position of Yang Dipertuan Muda dominated until the reformation that merged the sovereignty of the two Royal houses in 1899. The Yang Dipertuan Muda possessed a
de facto ''De facto'' ( ; , "in fact") describes practices that exist in reality, whether or not they are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms. It is commonly used to refer to what happens in practice, in contrast with ''de jure'' ("by la ...
prerogative powers exceeding that of the sultan himself. Despite the fact his function under the law was second highest in the office, nonetheless in practice he can over-rule the sultan. This was strongly evident during the rule of Sultan Abdul Rahman II when Yang Dipertuan Muda Raja Jaafar was perceived to be dominant when he acted as the regent of the sultanate. Yang Dipertuan Muda Raja Jaafar was the one high official responsible for the crowning of Abdul Rahman and highly influential during the negotiation with the Dutch and English governments during the succession dispute between Tengku Hussein and Tengku Abdul Rahman.


Resident

For the hereditary position of the Sultan, the sultan was fully subjected under the influence of the Dutch East Indies authority. Albeit he is
de jure In law and government, ''de jure'' ( ; , "by law") describes practices that are legally recognized, regardless of whether the practice exists in reality. In contrast, ("in fact") describes situations that exist in reality, even if not legally ...
on the apex of the monarchy system, he is under the direct control of the Dutch Resident in Tanjung Pinang. All matters pertaining the administration of the sultanate including the appointment of the Sultan and the Yang Dipertuan Muda, must be made within the knowledge and even the consent of the Dutch Resident.


List of office bearers


Sultans of Riau


Yang di-Pertuan Muda of Riau


Gallery

File:Riau Sultan 1880.jpg, Abdul Rahman II with fellow rulers (c. 1880) File:Yamtuan Riau.jpg, Muhammad Yusof, the 10th Yang Dipertuan Muda of Riau-Lingga (taken circa 1858–1899) File:Istana kantor.jpg, The remains of Istana Kantor, built in 1844, was the first administration and residential complex of the Yang Dipertuan Muda Dynasty File:Makam raja2.jpg, The Royal Mausoleum in Penyengat Inderasakti


Family Tree


National symbol


Flags of the Riau-Lingga Sultanate

The earlier flag of Riau Sultanate was established on 26 November 1818. It was provided in section 11 of the
Royal decree A decree is a legal proclamation, usually issued by a head of state (such as the president of a republic or a monarch), according to certain procedures (usually established in a constitution). It has the force of law. The particular term used for ...
that the flag of the Sultanate of Riau should be black with a white canton. The similar flag design was also adopted by its sister state of Johor. File:Flag of Riau (1818).svg, Flag of the Riau-Lingga Sultanate in 1818. File:Flag of Riau-Lingga Sultanate - (Sultan Personal Standard).svg, Personal standard of the Sultan File:Flag of Riau-Lingga Sultanate - Yamtuan Muda (Variant Standard).svg, Personal Standard of the ''Yang Dipertuan Muda'' (Viceregal) File:Flag of Riau-Lingga Sultanate - Pangeran Laksamana (Personal Standard).svg, Personal standard of the ''Pangeran Laksamana'' (Chief Admiral) File:Flag of Riau-Lingga Sultanate - (Royal Standard).svg, Royal Standard File:Flag of Riau-Lingga Sultanate - (Male Royal Standard).svg, Male Royal Standard File:Flag of Riau-Lingga Sultanate - Royal Ensign.svg, Royal Ensign File:Flag of Riau-Lingga Sultanate - Yamtuan Muda (Personal Standard).svg, Yang Dipertuan Muda Ensign File:Flag of Riau-Lingga Sultanate - Naval Ensign.svg,
Naval Ensign A naval ensign is an ensign (maritime flag) used by naval ships of various countries to denote their nationality. It can be the same or different from a country's civil ensign or state ensign. It can also be known as a war ensign. A large ve ...
File:Flag of Riau-Lingga Sultanate - Civil Ensign.svg,
Civil Ensign A civil ensign is an ensign (maritime flag) used by civilian vessels to denote their nationality. It can be the same or different from the state ensign and the naval ensign (or war ensign). It is also known as the merchant ensign or merchant flag ...


Royal and noble ranks


Royal family

* ''Sultan'': The reigning prince was styled the Sultan (personal reign name) ibni al-Marhum (father's title and personal name), Sultan of Riau, Lingga and dependencies, with the style of His Highness. * ''Tengku Ampuan'': The senior consort of the ruling prince. * ''Tengku Besar'': The Heir Apparent. * ''Tengku Besar Perempuan'': The consort of the Heir Apparent. * ''Tengku Muda'': The Heir Presumptive * ''Tengku Muda Perempuan'': The consort of the Heir Presumptive. * ''Tengku'': The other sons, daughters and descendants of Sultans, in the male line: They would be styled as Tengku (personal name) ibni al-Marhum (father's title and personal name).


Yang Dipertuan Muda

* Yang di-Pertuan Muda: The ruling prince of Riau, with the style of His Highness. In earlier days, the ruling prince also received the personal title of Sultan and a reign name. * Raja Muda: The Heir Apparent, styled as Raja (personal name) bin Raja (father's name), Raja Muda. * Raja: The sons, daughters, grandchildren's and other descendants of the ruling prince, in the male line: Raja (personal name) bin Raja (father's name).


Territory

Following the partition of Johor and the relinquishing of rights over the mainland peninsula, the sultanate was effectively a maritime state. The Riau Sultanate's dominions encompassed the Riau, Lingga and Tudjuh Archipelago, including
Batam Batam is the largest city in the province of Riau Islands, Indonesia. The city administrative area covers three main islands of Batam, Rempang, and Galang (collectively called Barelang), as well as several small islands. Batam Island is the c ...
,
Rempang Rempang is an island, located 2.5 km South-East of Batam, 165.83 km2.Bida Website
, Galang,
Bintan Bintan Regency (formerly Riau Islands Regency; id, Kabupaten Kepulauan Riau) is an administrative area in the Riau Islands Province of Indonesia. Bintan Regency includes all of Bintan Island (except for the city of Tanjung Pinang which is sep ...
, Combol, Kundur, Karimun, Bunguran, Lingga,
Singkep Singkep is an island in the Lingga Archipelago in Indonesia. Its area is . It is separated from the east coast of Sumatra by the Berhala Strait. It is surrounded by islands Posik to the west, I. Serak to the SW, I. Lalang to the South, and I. Sela ...
, Badas, Tambelan, Natuna, Anambas and many smaller islands. There were also several territories in Igal, Gaung, Reteh and Mandah located in Indragiri on mainland Sumatra. All these territories were headed by a ''Datuk Kaya'' (nobleman), known as an
Amir Emir (; ar, أمير ' ), sometimes transliterated amir, amier, or ameer, is a word of Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person possessing actual or cer ...
(equivalent to a
Prince A prince is a male ruler (ranked below a king, grand prince, and grand duke) or a male member of a monarch's or former monarch's family. ''Prince'' is also a title of nobility (often highest), often hereditary, in some European states. T ...
or
Duke Duke is a male title either of a monarch ruling over a duchy, or of a member of royalty, or nobility. As rulers, dukes are ranked below emperors, kings, grand princes, grand dukes, and sovereign princes. As royalty or nobility, they are rank ...
) who had been chosen by the sultan or by the ruling elite to deal with the local administration.


Foreign relations and trade

There were two main economic and commercial sources of wealth in Riau-Lingga, spices (especially peppers) and
tin Tin is a chemical element with the symbol Sn (from la, stannum) and atomic number 50. Tin is a silvery-coloured metal. Tin is soft enough to be cut with little force and a bar of tin can be bent by hand with little effort. When bent, t ...
. The Dutch monopolised the trade system in the Riau archipelago even before the partition of 1824, and were keen to control the region after gaining influence following the Dutch-Johor-Riau agreement.


Dutch

One of the most prominent battles during the Riau-Dutch wars was between Raja Haji and the Dutch militia. The fight against the Dutch, led by Raja Haji in Tanjung Pinang, managed to prevent the Dutch force from advancing on Malacca. In June 1784, Raja Haji was killed in Teluk Ketapang and was posthumously known was "Marhum Teluk Ketapang". After his death, in November 1784, the Dutch entered into an agreement with Mahmud Syah of the Johor-Riau Sultanate. The agreement contained 14 clauses which proved to be detrimental to the Johor-Riau Sultanate. For instance, the Dutch were free to engage in commerce in the kingdom and were permitted to open their own
trade post A trading post, trading station, or trading house, also known as a factory, is an establishment or settlement where goods and services could be traded. Typically the location of the trading post would allow people from one geographic area to tr ...
in Tanjung Pinang. Every passing ship in the region had to obtain consent from the Dutch and only the Dutch could bring the ores and spices.


British

Dutch dominance began to wane when the
Dutch East India Company The United East India Company ( nl, Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, the VOC) was a chartered company established on the 20th March 1602 by the States General of the Netherlands amalgamating existing companies into the first joint-stock ...
went bankrupt in 1799. The British influence then started to supersede the Dutch in the region. In contrast to the Dutch, the British followed a more moderate approach in engaging with the Johor-Riau Empire. Apart from controlling Malacca in 1795, the British recognised the Johor-Riau Sultanate as a
sovereign state A sovereign state or sovereign country, is a political entity represented by one central government that has supreme legitimate authority over territory. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined te ...
. The British were free to engage in commercial activities with the Riau traders without any major economic burden on them. The commercial ties between the Johor-Riau sultanate and the British were initially secret before being disclosed openly later on.


Ottomans

Observing the rise of the Islamic Brotherhood that gained momentum in the late 18th century, the Riau-Lingga Sultanate regarded the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
as a protector against non-Muslim colonial powers. In the eyes of the ruling elite of the court, the Ottomans were a source of inspiration and a balancing power between the western powers and Islamic world. The
Crimean War The Crimean War, , was fought from October 1853 to February 1856 between Russia and an ultimately victorious alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, the United Kingdom and Piedmont-Sardinia. Geopolitical causes of the war included the ...
fought by the Ottomans was regarded as a struggle of a "Muslim power" against the "Foreigners", Christians, which to a degree corresponded with the struggle faced in Riau-Lingga. The status of the Aceh Sultanate as a vassal of the Ottomans, provided a vital precedent for the Riau-Lingga following the deteriorating relationship with the Dutch. The court discussed a possibility to receiving the same status and protection under the Ottomans with the Ottoman consulate-general in Batavia in 1897-1899 Muhammad Kamil Bey. A diplomatic mission embarked in October 1904 under Raja Ali Kelana with the necessary documents, letter and treaties. Nevertheless, in view of the weakening domestic situation in the Ottoman Empire, the Riau case failed to gain any interest by the Ottomans.


Japan

The meteoric rise of Japan as a global superpower in the 19th century was also viewed with awe and hope by the Riau people. Following the demise of the sultanate in 1911, the officials of Riau began to seek help for the restoration of the sultanate - this was part of the
Pan-Asianism Satellite photograph of Asia in orthographic projection. Pan-Asianism (''also known as Asianism or Greater Asianism'') is an ideology aimed at creating a political and economic unity among Asian peoples. Various theories and movements of Pan-Asi ...
movement against the Europeans. In October 1912, a letter requesting an intervention from the
Japanese Emperor The Emperor of Japan is the monarch and the head of the Imperial Family of Japan. Under the Constitution of Japan, he is defined as the symbol of the Japanese state and the unity of the Japanese people, and his position is derived from "the w ...
was sent. The deposed Sultan Abdul Rahman sought to become a Japanese vassal state following restoration of the sultanate. Raja Khalid Hitam was then delegated to lead a diplomatic mission. Upon his arrival in Tokyo, he resided temporarily with Encik Ahmad, a Penyengat-born Malay academic who taught at the Tokyo School of Foreign Languages. However, after his arrival, the Dutch Consul-General in Tokyo left the country and travelled to Singapore, resulting in the failure of the mission. A second diplomatic mission was sent in June 1914, but this also failed. The health of Raja Khalid Hitam was deteriorating, and he died after a brief hospitalisation in Japan.


Society

The opening of
stannary A stannary was an administrative division established under stannary law in the English counties of Cornwall and Devon to manage the collection of tin coinage, which was the duty payable on the metal tin smelted from the ore cassiterite mine ...
towns in Karimun, Kundur and
Singkep Singkep is an island in the Lingga Archipelago in Indonesia. Its area is . It is separated from the east coast of Sumatra by the Berhala Strait. It is surrounded by islands Posik to the west, I. Serak to the SW, I. Lalang to the South, and I. Sela ...
by 1801 proved brought prosperity to the Riau Islands. During this time Pulau Penyengat was established as a royal settlement in 1804. It was initially founded as a royal
dowry A dowry is a payment, such as property or money, paid by the bride's family to the groom or his family at the time of marriage. Dowry contrasts with the related concepts of bride price and dower. While bride price or bride service is a payment ...
for Engku Puteri, a Johor-Riau aristocrat of Bugis lineage who returned to the island from the Mempawah Sultanate in western Borneo. She became the fourth wife of Sultan Mahmud Syah and Queen Consort of the Johor-Riau Sultanate. Penyengat was later developed as the seat for the Yang Dipertuan Muda. A palace, ''balai'' (audience hall), mosque and fortification were constructed on the island, presumably to resolve the dispute between the Malays and the Bugis. He expressly bequeathed the island to Raja Hamidah and the descendants of Raja Haji (her late father who previously won the war against the Dutch). The sultan then separated his kingdom into Malay and Bugis spheres. He decided that the Bugis Yang Dipertuan Muda would govern Riau (the islands of Bintan, Penyengat and their dependencies) while the Malay Sultan would administer Lingga and its dependencies, with each having no claim with the respective revenues of the other. Though the island personally belonged to Engku Puteri Hamidah, it was administered by her brother, Raja Jaafar (the Yang Dipertuan Muda) and later by his descendants. The effective division of the state by the sultan afforded an unprecedented opportunity for Raja Jaafar to develop Penyengat as the heart of the kingdom. Penyengat, situated in the middle of the maritime trade and commercial routes of the Malay World, soon become a key Malay literary and cultural centre in the 19th century.


Religion

Inspired to elevate the
status Status (Latin plural: ''statūs''), is a state, condition, or situation, and may refer to: * Status (law) ** City status ** Legal status, in law ** Political status, in international law ** Small entity status, in patent law ** Status confere ...
of Islam to a greater height in Riau-Lingga, Raja Jaafar begun to invite religious clerics and scholars to the palace court. The
Islamisation Islamization, Islamicization, or Islamification ( ar, أسلمة, translit=aslamāh), refers to the process through which a society shifts towards the religion of Islam and becomes largely Muslim. Societal Islamization has historically occurre ...
process begun to accelerate during the time of his successor, Raja Ali. Adhering to a stricter interpretation of the Quran, Raja Ali began to promulgate Islamic law and custom into the region. During his rule, the Naqshbandi order gained prominence in Penyengat, with all the princes and court officials required to study areligion, Sufism and improve their Quranic recitation. The Dutch described the Bugis Yang Dipertuan Mudas and his family as fanatical Muslims, narrowly focused on the Islamic studies. Raja Ali adhered to the view of
Al-Ghazali Al-Ghazali ( – 19 December 1111; ), full name (), and known in Persian-speaking countries as Imam Muhammad-i Ghazali (Persian: امام محمد غزالی) or in Medieval Europe by the Latinized as Algazelus or Algazel, was a Persian poly ...
about the business of government, adopting the theory of the bond between a ruler and religion. Reforms were instituted and
gambling Gambling (also known as betting or gaming) is the wagering of something of value ("the stakes") on a random event with the intent of winning something else of value, where instances of strategy are discounted. Gambling thus requires three el ...
,
cockfighting A cockfight is a blood sport, held in a ring called a cockpit. The history of raising fowl for fighting goes back 6,000 years. The first documented use of the ''word'' gamecock, denoting use of the cock as to a "game", a sport, pastime or ente ...
, the mixing of unmarried men and women and the wearing of gold or silk are all forbidden, and women are required to be
veil A veil is an article of clothing or hanging cloth that is intended to cover some part of the head or face, or an object of some significance. Veiling has a long history in European, Asian, and African societies. The practice has been prominent ...
ed. Pirates and evildoers were severely punished and the miscreants exiled. The public were all required to perform the five obligatory prayers, with a special dawn watch constituted to ensure the people rose for the ''subuh'' ( fajr) prayer. This was continued during the rule of Raja Abdullah, who was equally a devoted member of the Sufi order. The role of the imam in Riau-Lingga was regarded as authoritative concerning the matters of
Islamic law Sharia (; ar, شريعة, sharīʿa ) is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam and is based on the sacred scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and the ...
, as much as the respective roles of the Sultan and Yang Dipertuan Muda under the pledge of allegiance. The administration adhered to the separation of powers between the imam, the sultan and the
ulema In Islam, the ''ulama'' (; ar, علماء ', singular ', "scholar", literally "the learned ones", also spelled ''ulema''; feminine: ''alimah'' ingularand ''aalimath'' lural are the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious ...
, each acting within their own function to create an Islamic state. Riau was hailed at the time as the ''Serambi Mekah'' (Gateway to Mecca) and the people of Riau would visit Penyengat before embarking on their Hajj pilgrimage to the Muslim holy land. The
mosque A mosque (; from ar, مَسْجِد, masjid, ; literally "place of ritual prostration"), also called masjid, is a place of prayer for Muslims. Mosques are usually covered buildings, but can be any place where prayers ( sujud) are performed, ...
was the centerpiece of the society, not solely as a religious centre, but also for scholarship, law and administration offices. The mosque, located opposite of the Dutch administrative centre of Tanjung Pinang, stood for the strength of the Yang Dipertuan Mudas through their devotion to Islam.


Malayness

By the mid 19th century, the Bugis Yang Dipertuan Mudas began to perceive themselves as guardians of a quintessential Malay culture, while at the same time the Bugis language and customs within the diaspora community in Riau-Lingga gradually declined after being largely Malayised over several generations. Several customary practices and did survive however, for instance the revered position of women in society and the close affinity of kinship based on their common Bugis ancestry and heritage. A prominent advocate of the
Malay culture Malays ( ms, Orang Melayu, Jawi: أورڠ ملايو) are an Austronesian ethnic group native to eastern Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula and coastal Borneo, as well as the smaller islands that lie between these locations — areas that are col ...
in Riau-Lingga was Raja Ali Haji, of Bugis-Malay extraction himself. He stressed the responsibility to preserve the Malay culture in society while the customs of the
west West or Occident is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth. Etymology The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some ...
and the Chinese were not to be duplicated. He further emphasised attention to the Malay language and how it should not be misappropriated by European use of the language. Raja Ali believed that abandoning the Malay traditions would destroy of the world order and the ''Kerajaan'' (
Kingdom Kingdom commonly refers to: * A monarchy ruled by a king or queen * Kingdom (biology), a category in biological taxonomy Kingdom may also refer to: Arts and media Television * ''Kingdom'' (British TV series), a 2007 British television drama s ...
), while adopting western and Chinese
dress code A dress code is a set of rules, often written, with regard to what clothing groups of people must wear. Dress codes are created out of social perceptions and norms, and vary based on purpose, circumstances, and occasions. Different societies a ...
would be tantamount to betrayal of Malayness. Raja Ali did not favour a forced compulsion of Malayness, but an appeal to maintain tradition in order to achieve harmony between man and man, man and ruler and man and Allah. The situation in Johor and Singapore differed to some extent from Riau-Lingga Sultanate, and many acts and habits of the rather '' westernised'' Malays there were frowned upon by officials in Riau.


Roesidijah (Club) Riouw

Cultural progress during the era was also attributed to an intellectual circle known as the Roesidijah (Club) Riouw or Rusydiah Klub Riau, formed in 1895. The club was inspired by the ''Jam’iyah al-Fathaniyyah'', founded by Malay intellectuals including Syekh Ahmad al-Fathani in
Mecca Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow ...
in 1873. The association was earlier known as the ''Jam’iyah ar-Rusydiyah'', which later renamed itself as Rusydiah Klub Riau or Roesidijah (Club) Riouw. The name was derived from the Arabic word "Roesidijah", meaning intellectuals and "Club" from the
Dutch Dutch commonly refers to: * Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands * Dutch people () * Dutch language () Dutch may also refer to: Places * Dutch, West Virginia, a community in the United States * Pennsylvania Dutch Country People E ...
which literary translated as a gathering. The significance of the Arabic element in name of the organisation was the fact that the members of the group were mainly well-versed in Arabic, as Middle eastern countries were a preferred destination for Malays for furthering their studies during this time. The Dutch element in the name illustrated that the association was progressive, open to development and change. The association was the first modern association in the Dutch East Indies. It played a major role in supporting intellectuals, artist, writers, poets and philosophers in the Riau-Lingga Sultanate, aiming to facilitate the development of arts, theatre, live performance and literature. The organisation took part in the major religious celebrations in Riau-Lingga,
Isra and Mi'raj The Israʾ and Miʿraj ( ar, الإسراء والمعراج, ') are the two parts of a Night Journey that, according to Islam, the Islamic prophet Muhammad (570–632) took during a single night around the year 621 (1 BH – 0 BH). With ...
, Mawlid,
Eid al-Adha Eid al-Adha () is the second and the larger of the two main holidays celebrated in Islam (the other being Eid al-Fitr). It honours the willingness of Ibrahim (Abraham) to sacrifice his son Ismail (Ishmael) as an act of obedience to Allah's com ...
, Eid al-Fitr and Nuzul Quran. The association also organised Islamic debates and intellectual discourses, so unsurprisingly it developed into an anti-colonial movement later in its history. The development of the association was backed by several main sources - sponsorship by the sultanate, 'publishing houses such as 'Mathba‘at al Ahmadiah'' (for literature) and ''Mathba at al Riauwiyah'' (for government gazettes) and the establishment ''Kutub Kanah Marhum Ahmadi'' library. The literary culture of the Riau-Lingga Sultanate began to stall after 1913, when the Dutch dissolved the monarchy, resulting in an exodus of Malay elites and intellectuals to Singapore and Johor.


Literature

A prominent figure in Malay and Indonesian literature in the Riau-Lingga Sultanate was Ali Haji of Riau, born in
Selangor Selangor (; ), also known by its Arabic language, Arabic honorific Darul Ehsan, or "Abode of Sincerity", is one of the 13 Malaysian states. It is on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia and is bordered by Perak to the north, Pahang to the east ...
and raised in the Royal Court in Penyengat. He was celebrated as a prolific author, poet, historian, legal jurist and linguist. Some of his works are considered the ''Magna opera'' of the Malay literature, including
Tuhfat al-Nafis ''Tuhfat al-Nafis'' (; English: The Precious Gift) is a work of Malay literature written by the Bugis Raja Ali Haji in Jawi in around 1866–1870. who is of Malay- Bugis descent. It records and chronicles events, especially those of the 1 ...
("the Precious Gift"), ''Kitab Pengetahuan Bahasa'' ("Book of Language") — the first dictionary in Malay and '' Gurindam dua belas'' ("The Twelve Gurindams"). His works played a vital role in the development of the Malay and modern-Indonesian language. He spent most of his life writing and researching the Malay language, history, culture and law. The literary culture that flourished in Penyengat was acknowledged by the Johor delegation during their visit in 1868. 19th century Riau was marked by various publications of romantic and realist modes of Malay , , , , poetry, historical and literary works by a generation of male and female writers and poets, paving the way for the development of Malay literary culture. Literature was not solely regarded as a source of entertainment, but also a source of mental stimulation and religious solace. Raja Aisyah's ''Hikayat Syamsul Anwar'', completed in 1890, was perhaps one earliest testaments of
feminism Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism incorporates the position that society prioritizes the male po ...
to be found in Malay literature: it describes the secret life of ''Badrul Muin'', a heroine who disguises herself as a male. The story illustrates that a woman can achieve a same level with a man. While her subsequent work, ''Syair Khadamuddin'' depicting the grief of its heroine Sabariah after the death of her husband at the hands of the pirates, it was presumed that the work was a semi-autobiographical account, following the death of her husband Raja Khalid Hitam in Japan, with the pirates being a metaphor for a foreign land. Raja Ali Kelana's works in Riau-Lingga included ''Pohon Perhimpunan Pada Menyatakan Peri Perjalanan'' (1899) (a narration of his trip to the Tudjuh Archipelago between February and March 1896); Perhimpunan Plakat (1900) (a report on his journey to the Middle East) and ''Kitab Kumpulan Ringkas'' (1910) (a religious and psychological guide).


Library

A major figure for the literary culture in Pulau Penyengat was Muhammad Yusof Ahmadi, the 10th Yang Dipertuan Muda of Riau. He was a member of the Naqshbandi, a major sufi
tariqa A tariqa (or ''tariqah''; ar, طريقة ') is a school or order of Sufism, or specifically a concept for the mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking ''haqiqa'', which translates as "ultimate truth". ...
. He stressed the importance of religion and knowledge through literature. He considered that a Muslim must be equipped with theological wisdom before performing his or her Islamic obligations. Without knowledge, in his view, all the duties of a Muslim would be in vain. He further stressed that knowledge and literature are kin to one another, literature born of the thirst for knowledge, and knowledge transfused by literature. He founded the ''Kutub Khanah Yamtuan Ahmadi'' in 1866, the first Islamic library of its kind in the Malay world. The library collection was bought by Muhammad Yusof from the
India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
,
Cairo Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the Capital city, capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the List of urban agglomerations in Africa, largest urban agglomeration in Africa, List of ...
, Mecca and
Medina Medina,, ', "the radiant city"; or , ', (), "the city" officially Al Madinah Al Munawwarah (, , Turkish: Medine-i Münevvere) and also commonly simplified as Madīnah or Madinah (, ), is the second-holiest city in Islam, and the capital of the ...
costing him 10,000 Ringgits (Spanish Coins). A major part of the collection was devoted to Islamic theological studies. The library was located at the Penyengat Grand Mosque, so the collections were readily accessible to the traders, visitors and devotees of the mosque. Following his death, the library was renamed ''Kutub Khanah Marhum Ahmadi''.


Publishing Houses

The history of printing in Riau-Lingga began when the sultanate established the ''Rumah Cap Kerajaan'' publishing house in Lingga in around 1885. The printing house published its materials using the
Lithography Lithography () is a planographic method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone (lithographic limestone) or a metal plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by the German a ...
technique, printed mostly in
Jawi script Jawi (; ace, Jawoë; Kelantan-Pattani: ''Yawi''; ) is a writing system used for writing several languages of Southeast Asia, such as Acehnese, Banjarese, Kerinci, Maguindanaon, Malay, Minangkabau, Tausūg, and Ternate. Jawi is based ...
and occasionally in
Rumi script The modern Malay or Indonesian alphabet (Brunei, Malaysia and Singapore: ''Tulisan Rumi'', literally "Roman script" or "Roman writing", Indonesia: ''Aksara Latin'', literally "Latin script"), consists of the 26 letters of the ISO basic Latin alph ...
. Several major works were printed in this house during that period, including ''Muqaddimah fi Intidzam'' (a critical examination of the duty of the leader to his subjects and religion) in 1886, ''Tsamarat al-muhimmah'' (on law, administration of justice and statecraft) in 1886, Undang-Undang Lima Pasal (Code of Laws), and Qanun Kerajaan Riau-Lingga (Code of Laws) all written by
Raja Ali Haji Raja Ali Haji bin Raja Haji Ahmad (1808–1873) was a 19th-century Bugis- Malay historian, poet and scholar. He was elevated to the status of National Hero of Indonesia in 2004. Haji has been described as one of the most important Malay writ ...
. In addition to Raja Ali Haji, the publishing house also published the works of
Munshi Abdullah Abdullah bin Abdul al Kadir (1796–1854) ( ar, عبد الله بن عبد القادر ') also known as Munshi Abdullah, was a Malayan writer of mixed ancestry. He was a famous Malacca-born munshi of Singapore and died in Jeddah, a part of t ...
, the father of modern Malay literature. In 1894, Raja Muhammad Yusuf al Ahmadi the 10th Yang Dipertuan Muda founded another publishing house in Penyengat. It used two distinctive imprints, Mathaba'at al Ahmadiah for non-government publications and Mathaba'at al Riauwiyah for official government-related publications. The Mathaba'at al Ahmadiah mainly engaged with
general knowledge General knowledge is information that has been accumulated over time through various mediums and sources. It excludes specialized learning that can only be obtained with extensive training and information confined to a single medium. General kn ...
,
Islamic literature Islamic literature is literature written by Muslim people, influenced by an Islamic cultural perspective, or literature that portrays Islam. It can be written in any language and portray any country or region. It includes many literary forms incl ...
and
translation Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The English language draws a terminological distinction (which does not exist in every language) between ''transla ...
works, including ''Makna Tahyat'' (Definition of the
Tashahhud The ''Tashahhud'' ( ar, تَشَهُّد, meaning "testimony faith]"), also known as at-Tahiyyat ( ar, ٱلتَّحِيَّات, lit=greetings, link=no), is the portion of the Salah, Muslim prayer where the person Sitting in salah, kneels or sits ...
), ''Syair Perjalanan Sultan Lingga ke Johor'' (The journey of Sultan of Lingga to Johore) and ''Gema Mestika Alam'' (Echoes of the Universe). Among the works published by the Mathaba'at al Riauwiyah were Faruk Al-Makmur (the Laws of Riau) and Pohon Perhimpunan (The journey of Raja Ali Kelana to Tudjuh Archipelago). All the publications of Al Ahmadiah and Riauwiyah were written in Jawi script, with the sole exception of ''Rumah Obat'' (a Public health journal, Medical Journal) by R.H Ahmad, a
physician A physician (American English), medical practitioner (Commonwealth English), medical doctor, or simply doctor, is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through th ...
. The journal was written in Rumi in its title in 1894. This marked the increasing influence of Rumi script by the end of the 19th century. Nonetheless, Riau intellectuals during that period wanted the Jawi script preserved and maintained especially in matters of religion and culture. Following the dissolution of the sultanate in 1911, Riau intellectuals headed north to Singapore and Johore. They re-established the Mathaba'at al Ahmadiah in Singapore to continue their printing activities, and they would distribute materials on general knowledge and Islamic literature for free to act against the Dutch occupation on their homeland. The publishing house was renamed the Al-Ahmadiah Press in 1925.


Culture

As well as being celebrated for its literary contributions, the Riau-Lingga palace court was also known for the passion of its musical tradition. Musical performance was enjoyed as a form of entertainment by both the palace and commoners alike. With the coming of the Dutch, European influence on musical traditions slowly made their way into the court, as evidenced by the introduction of instruments such as the
violin The violin, sometimes known as a '' fiddle'', is a wooden chordophone ( string instrument) in the violin family. Most violins have a hollow wooden body. It is the smallest and thus highest-pitched instrument ( soprano) in the family in regu ...
and
tambur The ''tambur'' (spelled in keeping with TDK conventions) is a fretted string instrument of Turkey and the former lands of the Ottoman Empire. Like the ney, the armudi (lit. pear-shaped) kemençe and the kudüm, it constitutes one of the fou ...
from the
Western Hemisphere The Western Hemisphere is the half of the planet Earth that lies west of the prime meridian (which crosses Greenwich, London, United Kingdom) and east of the antimeridian. The other half is called the Eastern Hemisphere. Politically, the te ...
. The introduction of the Western instruments to the royal court can be traced to the arrival of Raja Jaafar from Selangor, the Yang Dipertuan Muda of Riau-Lingga. Prior to his installation, he was a Klang-based merchant who gained prominence because of the tin trade. He came to Riau at the invitation of Mahmud III of Johor upon the demise of Raja Aji. After his installation, he constructed a palace and due to his love for music, he became a pioneer of western music in the kingdom. Adopting martial music as practised in the west, he sent several young men from Riau to Malacca to train with the Dutch on western instruments such as the violin,
trumpet The trumpet is a brass instrument commonly used in classical and jazz ensembles. The trumpet group ranges from the piccolo trumpet—with the highest register in the brass family—to the bass trumpet, pitched one octave below the standard ...
and flute. One of the earliest accounts of the musical tradition of the royal court was left by C. Van Angelbeek, a Dutch official. During his visit to Daik, he observed that the ''Tarian Ronggeng'' ( Ronggeng dance) was staged in the palace court, while the
suling The suling or seruling ( Sundanese: ) is a musical instrument of the Sundanese people in western Java, Indonesia. It is used in the Degung ensemble. Bamboo ring flute can also be found in Southeast Asian, especially in Brunei, Indonesia, Mal ...
and rebab were the favourites among the locals. His report was published in Batavia in 1829.


Gamelan Melayu

Among other prominent ensembles of the palace court was the ''Tarian Gamelan'' ( Malay Gamelan dance). The Malay Gamelan performance is believed to trace its origin to the Johor court in Riau-Lingga as early as the 17th century. It was recorded that a Gamelan ensemble was invited from Pulau Penyengat to perform in Pahang in 1811 for the royal wedding of Tengku Hussein of Johor and Wan Esah, a
Pahang Pahang (; Jawi: , Pahang Hulu Malay: ''Paha'', Pahang Hilir Malay: ''Pahaeng'', Ulu Tembeling Malay: ''Pahaq)'' officially Pahang Darul Makmur with the Arabic honorific ''Darul Makmur'' (Jawi: , "The Abode of Tranquility") is a sultanate and ...
ite aristocrat. The dance was performed for the first time in public during the royal wedding in Pekan, Pahang. This marked the birth of Joget Pahang and the spread of Tarian Gamelan in the Malay Peninsula.


Mak Yong

The history of Mak Yong, a dance and theatrical performance, which gained prominence in the royal court of Johor, began in 1780, when two men from Mantang, Encik Awang Keladi and Encik Awang Durte went to
Kelantan Kelantan (; Jawi: ; Kelantanese Malay: ''Klate'') is a state in Malaysia. The capital is Kota Bharu and royal seat is Kubang Kerian. The honorific name of the state is ''Darul Naim'' (Jawi: ; "The Blissful Abode"). Kelantan is located in th ...
for their marriage. They returned south and settled in
Pulau Tekong Pulau may refer to: *Pulau virus (PuV), a novel strain of Nelson Bay orthoreovirus species *Pulau River, a river of West Papua and Papua New Guinea See also *List of islands of Malaysia – "Pulau" means "island" in the Malay language *Pulao (di ...
(now in Singapore) after their weddings, telling the locals about their experience witnessing the Mak Yong performance in Kelantan. Enthused by their tale, the people of Pulau Tekong went to Kelantan to learn about the theater performance. Ten years later, the first Mak Yong performance was staged in Riau-Lingga. The news was then received by Sultan Mahmud Shah III. Attracted by the story, he invited the performers to the palace court. It was not long before Mak Yong become a staple in the dance court of Johor in Riau-Lingga. Apart from entertainment, the Mak Yong ritual also acted as a mystical healing performance. The main feature that set the Mak Yong in Riau-Lingga apart from aside from that of Kelantan, was that in Riau-Lingga the performance was enhanced by the use of a ceremonial mask, a feature unknown in Kelantan. The use of ritual masks closely resembles the Mak Yong performances staged in Pattani and
Narathiwat Narathiwat ( th, นราธิวาส, ) is a town (thesaban mueang) in southern Thailand and capital of Narathiwat Province. The town is in the Mueang Narathiwat District and was established in 1936. As of 2008, the population was 40,521. ...
, both located in present-day southern
Thailand Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is b ...
.


Royal orchestra

The earliest account of the ''Musik Nobat Diraja'' (Royal Orchestra) was in the Sulalatus Salatin (Malay Annals), which stated that orchestra performances began during the reign of the ancient female ruler of
Bintan Bintan Regency (formerly Riau Islands Regency; id, Kabupaten Kepulauan Riau) is an administrative area in the Riau Islands Province of Indonesia. Bintan Regency includes all of Bintan Island (except for the city of Tanjung Pinang which is sep ...
, Wan Seri Bini, also known as Queen Sakidar Syah, who claimed to have traveled to ''Banua Syam'' (the
Levant The Levant () is an approximate historical geographical term referring to a large area in the Eastern Mediterranean region of Western Asia. In its narrowest sense, which is in use today in archaeology and other cultural contexts, it is ...
). The Nobat was used during the coronation of
Sang Nila Utama Sang Nila Utama was a Srivijayan prince from Palembang and is the founder of the Kingdom of Singapura in 1299. His official title adopted upon his coronation was Sri Tri Buana (), which can be translated as "Lord of Three Worlds"; the "Three Worl ...
, the king of ancient Singapore. The usage of the ''Nobat'' then spread to other Malay Royal Houses in the Malay Peninsula,
Samudera Pasai The Samudera Pasai Sultanate (), also known as Samudera or Pasai or Samudera Darussalam or Pacem, was a Muslim harbour kingdom on the north coast of Sumatra from the 13th to the 16th centuries CE. The kingdom was believed to have been founded ...
and
Brunei Brunei ( , ), formally Brunei Darussalam ( ms, Negara Brunei Darussalam, Jawi: , ), is a country located on the north coast of the island of Borneo in Southeast Asia. Apart from its South China Sea coast, it is completely surrounded by t ...
. Between 1722 and 1911, the Nobat played during the coronation ceremony of the sultan, and was an instrumental part of the royal regalia as well as a symbol of sovereignty. It could only play on the order of the sultan, in royal ceremonies, with a special troupe of performers, known as Orang Kalur or Orang Kalau. A new Nobat was commissioned for the coronation of Abdul Rahman II in 1885. It was reported that the Dutch colonial officer succumbed to
abdominal pain Abdominal pain, also known as a stomach ache, is a symptom associated with both non-serious and serious medical issues. Common causes of pain in the abdomen include gastroenteritis and irritable bowel syndrome. About 15% of people have a m ...
each time the old Nobat was playing. This caused the coronation to be postponed several times, and the pains were widely believed to have been caused by supernatural forces. Tengku Embung Fatimah (then
Queen mother A queen mother is a former queen, often a queen dowager, who is the mother of the monarch, reigning monarch. The term has been used in English since the early 1560s. It arises in hereditary monarchy, hereditary monarchies in Europe and is also u ...
) ordered a new Nobat to be made. The new Nobat bore a crest in
Jawi script Jawi (; ace, Jawoë; Kelantan-Pattani: ''Yawi''; ) is a writing system used for writing several languages of Southeast Asia, such as Acehnese, Banjarese, Kerinci, Maguindanaon, Malay, Minangkabau, Tausūg, and Ternate. Jawi is based ...
saying ''Yang Dipertuan Riau dan'' (and) ''Lingga Sanah'', ''tahun'' (year) ''1303''( AH) (1885AD). The new Nobat was used for the coronation of the sultan in 1885 and the old one was never used again. The old Nobat is now stored in Kadil Private Museum, in Tanjung Pinang, while the new one has been inherited by the Royal House of Terengganu.


Royal Brass Band

Western music achieved its greatest popularity during the reign of Sultan Abdul Rahman II. The genre was better known as ''cara Hollandia'' ("the Dutch way"). The seeds of western music which dated from the arrival of Raja Jaafar in 1805 matured and became an integral part of the official ceremonies and
military parade A military parade is a formation of soldiers whose movement is restricted by close-order manoeuvering known as drilling or marching. The military parade is now almost entirely ceremonial, though soldiers from time immemorial up until the la ...
of the palace court by the end of the 19th century Riau. During this time western composition and playing techniques were adopted, along with instruments such as the trumpet,
trombone The trombone (german: Posaune, Italian, French: ''trombone'') is a musical instrument in the brass family. As with all brass instruments, sound is produced when the player's vibrating lips cause the air column inside the instrument to vibrate ...
,
saxophone The saxophone (often referred to colloquially as the sax) is a type of Single-reed instrument, single-reed woodwind instrument with a conical body, usually made of brass. As with all single-reed instruments, sound is produced when a reed (mouthpi ...
, clarinet and European-made drums. Consisting entirely of Malay members, the court brass band was led by Raja Abdulrahman Kecik, the ''Bentara Kanan'' (vice-
herald A herald, or a herald of arms, is an officer of arms, ranking between pursuivant and king of arms. The title is commonly applied more broadly to all officers of arms. Heralds were originally messengers sent by monarchs or noblemen to ...
) of Riau-Lingga Sultanate. Music was performed during royal balls or banquets for Dutch visits or visits from other European delegations, usually invitees from Singapore. The brass band began in the 1880s, not long after Abdul Rahman ascended the throne. Its performance played a vital role in the celebrations of Crown Prince Yusof when he received the
Order of the Netherlands Lion The Order of the Netherlands Lion, also known as the Order of the Lion of the Netherlands ( nl, De Orde van de Nederlandse Leeuw, french: L'Ordre du Lion Néerlandais) is a Dutch order of chivalry founded by King William I of the Netherlands on ...
from Queen
Wilhelmina of the Netherlands Wilhelmina (; Wilhelmina Helena Pauline Maria; 31 August 1880 – 28 November 1962) was Queen of the Netherlands from 1890 until her abdication in 1948. She reigned for nearly 58 years, longer than any other Dutch monarch. Her reign saw World Wa ...
in 1889. Due to their exclusive nature, being reserved to the nobility of the sultanate, the performances died out along with the band following the dissolution of the sultanate in 1911.


Legacy

The sultanate is widely credited in the development of the Malay and Indonesian language, as various books, literary works and dictionary was contributed in the sultanate. These works formed as the backbone of the modern Indonesian language.
Raja Ali Haji Raja Ali Haji bin Raja Haji Ahmad (1808–1873) was a 19th-century Bugis- Malay historian, poet and scholar. He was elevated to the status of National Hero of Indonesia in 2004. Haji has been described as one of the most important Malay writ ...
, was celebrated for his contribution on the language and honoured as the
National Hero of Indonesia National Hero of Indonesia ( id, Pahlawan Nasional Indonesia) is the highest-level title awarded in Indonesia. It is posthumously given by the Government of Indonesia for actions which are deemed to be heroic, defined as "actual deeds which can b ...
in 2004.


See also

*
Malay people Malays ( ms, Orang Melayu, Jawi: أورڠ ملايو) are an Austronesian ethnic group native to eastern Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula and coastal Borneo, as well as the smaller islands that lie between these locations — areas that are ...
* Malayness * Johor Sultanate * Selangor Sultanate *
Malacca Sultanate The Malacca Sultanate ( ms, Kesultanan Melaka; Jawi script: ) was a Malay sultanate based in the modern-day state of Malacca, Malaysia. Conventional historical thesis marks as the founding year of the sultanate by King of Singapura, Parames ...
* Siak Sri Indrapura Sultanate * Singapura Kingdom * Srivijaya Kingdom * Riau Archipelago *
Johor Johor (; ), also spelled as Johore, is a state of Malaysia in the south of the Malay Peninsula. Johor has land borders with the Malaysian states of Pahang to the north and Malacca and Negeri Sembilan to the northwest. Johor shares maritime ...
* List of Sunni Muslim dynasties


Notes


Bibliography

* Barbara Watson Andaya (2003) ''Gender, Islam and the Bugis Diaspora in Nineteenth and Twentieth-Century Riau'', Kuala Lumpur: National University of Malaysia
online edition
* Vivienne Wee (2002) ''Ethno-nationalism in process: ethnicity, atavism and indigenism in Riau, Indonesia'', The Pacific Review
online edition
* Mun Cheong Yong (2004) ''The Indonesian Revolution and the Singapore Connection, 1945-1949'', Singapore: KITLV Press, * Derek Heng, Syed Muhd Khirudin Aljunied (ed.) (2009) ''Reframing Singapore: Memory, Identity, Trans-regionalism'', Singapore: Brill Academic Publishers, * Virginia, Matheson (1989) ''Pulau Penyengat : Nineteenth Century Islamic Centre of Riau''
online edition
* Barbara Watson Andaya (1977) ''From Rūm to Tokyo: The Search for Anticolonial Allies by the Rulers of Riau, 1899-1914''
online edition
{{Precolonial states in Indonesia History of Johor History of Sumatra Islamic states in Indonesia Former sultanates Former countries in Southeast Asia Former monarchies Precolonial states of Indonesia Former countries in Indonesian history Former countries in Malaysian history Island countries History of Singapore History of Malaysia History of Indonesia