Lingbao School
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The Lingbao School (), also known as the School of the Sacred Jewel or the School of Numinous Treasure, was an important
Taoist Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the ''Tao'' ...
School that emerged in
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
in between the Jin dynasty and the
Liu Song dynasty Song, known as Liu Song (), Former Song (前宋) or Song of (the) Southern Dynasty (南朝宋) in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the first of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. ...
in the early fifth century CE. It lasted for about two hundred years until it was absorbed into the
Shangqing School The Shangqing School (Chinese:上清派), also known as Supreme Clarity or Highest Clarity is a Taoist movement that began during the aristocracy of the Western Jin dynasty. Shangqing can be translated as either 'Supreme Clarity' or 'Highest Clari ...
and Zhengyi School currents during the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
. The Lingbao School is a synthesis of religious ideas based on Shangqing texts, the rituals of the
Celestial Masters The Way of the Celestial Masters is a Chinese Daoist movement that was founded by Zhang Daoling in 142 AD. Its followers rebelled against the Han Dynasty, and won their independence in 194. At its height, the movement controlled a theocratic stat ...
, and
Buddhist Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
practices. The Lingbao School adopted many concepts from
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
, including the concept of
rebirth Rebirth may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Film * ''Rebirth'' (2011 film), a 2011 Japanese drama film * ''Rebirth'' (2016 film), a 2016 American thriller film * ''Rebirth'', a documentary film produced by Project Rebirth * ''The Re ...
, and also some cosmological elements. Although rebirth was an important concept in the Lingbao School, the earlier Taoist belief in attaining immortality remained. The school's pantheon is similar to Shangqing and Celestial Master Taoism, with one of its most important deities being the deified form of Laozi. Other deities also existed, some of whom were in charge of preparing spirits for rebirth. Lingbao ritual was initially in individual practice, but later went through a transformation that put more emphasis on collective rites and rituals. The most important scripture in the Lingbao School is known as the ''Five Talismans'' (''Wufujing''), which was compiled by
Ge Chaofu Ge Chaofu () is a member of the Chinese Ge family who lived during the 4th and 5th centuries CE. He is best known for writing the Taoist scripture known as ''The Five Talismans'' (''Wufujing'') which forms the basis of the beliefs of the Lingbao Sc ...
and based on
Ge Hong Ge Hong (; b. 283 – d. 343 or 364), courtesy name Zhichuan (稚川), was a Chinese linguist, Taoist practitioner, philosopher, physician, politician, and writer during the Eastern Jin dynasty. He was the author of '' Essays on Chinese Characte ...
's earlier alchemical works. Although Lingbao no longer exists as a distinct movement, it has left influences on all subsequent branches of Taoism. The "''yinyang'' masters" popular in contemporary Northern China are defined as Zhengyi Taoist priests following the Lingbao scriptural tradition.Jones (2005), 5.


History

The Lingbao School began in around 400 CE when the Lingbao scriptures were revealed to
Ge Chaofu Ge Chaofu () is a member of the Chinese Ge family who lived during the 4th and 5th centuries CE. He is best known for writing the Taoist scripture known as ''The Five Talismans'' (''Wufujing'') which forms the basis of the beliefs of the Lingbao Sc ...
, the grandnephew of
Ge Hong Ge Hong (; b. 283 – d. 343 or 364), courtesy name Zhichuan (稚川), was a Chinese linguist, Taoist practitioner, philosopher, physician, politician, and writer during the Eastern Jin dynasty. He was the author of '' Essays on Chinese Characte ...
. Ge Chaofu claimed that the scriptures came to him in a line of transmission going back to Ge Hong's great-uncle,
Ge Xuan Ge Xuan (164–244), courtesy name Xiaoxian, was a Chinese Taoist practitioner who lived in the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220) and Three Kingdoms period (220–280) of China. He was the ancestor of Ge Hong and a resident of Danyang Commandery ...
(164–244). Ge Chaofu transmitted the scriptures to two of his disciples, and the scriptures quickly gained immense popularity. In 471, Lu Xiujing (406–477) compiled a catalogue of all the Lingbao texts, and also was responsible for reorganizing and standardizing Lingbao ritual. This organization of texts and ritual provided a solid foundation on which the Lingbao School prospered in the subsequent centuries.Yamada (2000), 232. During the Tang dynasty, the influence of the Lingbao School declined and another school of Daoism, the Shangqing School, became prominent. Borrowing many Lingbao practices, it was well accepted by the aristocracy and established an influence in court.Fowler (2005), 151.


Beliefs

Some early Lingbao scriptures borrowed so many Buddhist terminological, stylistic and conceptual elements that Zürcher describes them as "Buddho-Taoist hybrids".


Rebirth

Many Lingbao beliefs are borrowed from
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
. The names of the many different deities and heavens were often given titles based on phonetic transcriptions of
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
. Many Sanskrit terms were borrowed phonetically, but given completely different meanings. One significant concept borrowed from Buddhism was that of
rebirth Rebirth may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Film * ''Rebirth'' (2011 film), a 2011 Japanese drama film * ''Rebirth'' (2016 film), a 2016 American thriller film * ''Rebirth'', a documentary film produced by Project Rebirth * ''The Re ...
.Robinet (1997), 153. Both Buddhism and the Lingbao School share the idea of the Five Paths of Rebirth (Gati). People were reborn into earth prisons, as a
hungry ghost Hungry ghost is a concept in Buddhism, and Chinese traditional religion, representing beings who are driven by intense emotional needs in an animalistic way. The terms ' literally "hungry ghost", are the Chinese translation of the term ''pret ...
, as an
animal Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms in the Kingdom (biology), biological kingdom Animalia. With few exceptions, animals Heterotroph, consume organic material, Cellular respiration#Aerobic respiration, breathe oxygen, are Motilit ...
, as a
man A man is an adult male human. Prior to adulthood, a male human is referred to as a boy (a male child or adolescent). Like most other male mammals, a man's genome usually inherits an X chromosome from the mother and a Y chromo ...
, or as a celestial being. After death, the body would be alchemically refined in the Palace of Supreme Darkness located in the north, and the Southern Palace in the south. The transmutation of the body consisted of two steps; the ''
yin Yin may refer to: *the dark force in the yin and yang from traditional Chinese philosophy and medicine *Yīn (surname) (), a Chinese surname *Yǐn (surname) (), a Chinese surname *Shang dynasty, also known as the Yin dynasty **Yinxu or Yin, the S ...
'' components of the person were refined in the Palace of Supreme Darkness, followed by the ''
yang Yang may refer to: * Yang, in yin and yang, one half of the two symbolic polarities in Chinese philosophy * Korean yang, former unit of currency of Korea from 1892 to 1902 * YANG, a data modeling language for the NETCONF network configuration ...
'' components in the Southern Palace. The Lingbao concept of rebirth is a Chinese adaptation of Buddhism, mixing traditional Chinese concepts with newly arrived Buddhist ideas.


Cosmology

Lingbao
cosmology Cosmology () is a branch of physics and metaphysics dealing with the nature of the universe. The term ''cosmology'' was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blount (lexicographer), Thomas Blount's ''Glossographia'', and in 1731 taken up in ...
also borrows heavily from
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
. Unlike previous Taoist cosmological systems which were divided into four to nine regions, Lingbao cosmology supposed that there were ten regions, an idea adopted from Buddhism. In addition to the cosmological regions, there were 32 heavens divided into four sectors, each with eight heavens that were placed horizontally on the periphery of the celestial disc. Each of the four sectors was ruled by an emperor and populated by denizens of an earlier cosmic age (''
kalpa Kalevan Pallo (KalPa) is a professional ice hockey team which competes in the Finnish Liiga. They play in Kuopio, Finland at the Niiralan monttu, Olvi Areena. Team history Established in 1929 as ''Sortavalan Palloseura'' in Sortavala, the club r ...
''). Like Buddhism, the heavens were divided into the "three worlds" of desire, form, and formlessness.Robinet (1997), 158–159. Lingbao cosmology deviated from Buddhist beliefs by proposing that the heavens rotated around a huge mountain known as the Jade Capital, which was the residence of the Celestial Worthy, the Taoist version of the
Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was ...
, and the primordial deity. Certain traditional Taoist ideas were retained in Lingbao cosmology, such as the idea that the world originated from a type of primordial '' Qi'' known as ''
yuanqi In traditional Chinese medicine and Chinese culture, ''yuán qì'' (元氣) is an innate or prenatal qi. This inborn qi is differentiated from acquired qi that a person may develop over their lifetime. Porkert describes the concept as "the metaph ...
'', and then was divided into heaven and earth. Furthermore, the ''yuanqi'' is subdivided into three types of ''qi'' that correspond to three deities: the lords of the Celestial Treasure, of the Sacred Treasure and of the Divine Treasure. These three deities later introduced the teachings of the ''Dongzhen'' (Perfect Grotto), the ''Dongxuan'' (Mysterious Grotto), and of the ''Dongshen'' (Divine Grotto). These three teachings form the basis for the later classification of texts in the
Taoist Canon Daozang (), meaning 'Taoist Canon', consists of around 1,400 texts that were collected (after the ''Daodejing'' and ''Zhuangzi'' and Liezi which are the core Taoist texts). They were collected by Taoist monks of the period in an attempt to brin ...
.Robinet (1997), 159. Apocalyptic notions that appeared in Shangqing Taoism were first developed fully by the Lingbao School. Lingbao cosmology supposed that time was divided into cosmic cycles, which correlated with the
Five Phases (; Japanese: (); Korean: (); Vietnamese: ''ngũ hành'' (五行)), usually translated as Five Phases or Five Agents, is a fivefold conceptual scheme that many traditional Chinese fields used to explain a wide array of phenomena, from cosmi ...
. At the end of a cosmic era, the deity of the colour associated with that era would descend onto earth and reveal a teaching that would save a fixed number of people from death. There were two types of cosmic eras, short ones that were characterized by an excess of ''
yin Yin may refer to: *the dark force in the yin and yang from traditional Chinese philosophy and medicine *Yīn (surname) (), a Chinese surname *Yǐn (surname) (), a Chinese surname *Shang dynasty, also known as the Yin dynasty **Yinxu or Yin, the S ...
'' energy, and long ones that were characterized by an excess of ''
yang Yang may refer to: * Yang, in yin and yang, one half of the two symbolic polarities in Chinese philosophy * Korean yang, former unit of currency of Korea from 1892 to 1902 * YANG, a data modeling language for the NETCONF network configuration ...
'' energy. At the end of a short cosmic era, the moon was prophesied to produce a flood that would erode the mountains, renew the ''qi'' of the universe, and change the rankings of the members of the celestial bureaucracy. At the end of a long cosmic era, evil creatures were unleashed, heaven and earth were turned upside down, and metals and stones melted together. The people who followed the correct teaching revealed by the deity of the colour would be gathered up by the
Queen Mother of the West The Queen Mother of the West, known by various local names, is a mother goddess in Chinese religion and mythology, also worshipped in neighbouring Asian countries, and attested from ancient times. From her name alone some of her most importan ...
and transported to a "land of bliss" that would not be affected by the apocalypse.


Pantheon

In addition to borrowing deities from the
Celestial Masters The Way of the Celestial Masters is a Chinese Daoist movement that was founded by Zhang Daoling in 142 AD. Its followers rebelled against the Han Dynasty, and won their independence in 194. At its height, the movement controlled a theocratic stat ...
and the Shangqing School, the Lingbao School also developed its own Deities. The supreme deity of Lingbao Taoists is known as the
Yuanshi Tianzun Yuanshi Tianzun (), the ''Celestial Venerable of the Primordial Beginning'' or the ''Primeval Lord of Heaven'', is one of the highest deities of Taoism. He is one of the Three Pure Ones () and is also known as the ''Jade Pure One'' (). He resides ...
or the Celestial Worthy of the Original Beginning, who played a similar role to the deified Laozi in the Celestial Masters. According to the scriptures, this god went through a series of ''
kalpa Kalevan Pallo (KalPa) is a professional ice hockey team which competes in the Finnish Liiga. They play in Kuopio, Finland at the Niiralan monttu, Olvi Areena. Team history Established in 1929 as ''Sortavalan Palloseura'' in Sortavala, the club r ...
'' cycles that were given names similar to dynastic names, until emerging at the beginning of the ''Kaihuang'' period. The next most important deity was
Taishang Laojun Daode Tianzun (), also known as Taishang Laojun () is a high Taoist god. He is the Taiqing (太清, lit. the Grand Pure One) which is one of the Three Pure Ones, the highest divinities of Taoism. Laozi is regarded to be a manifestation of Daode ...
, the deified form of Laozi, who was the Celestial Worthy's chief disciple. Below these two main gods in the celestial hierarchy were those deities associated with the Southern Palace, where spirits went after death to prepare for rebirth. The head of this group of gods was known as the Perfected of the Southern Extremities. Beneath him was the Director of the Equerry, who was in charge of the life records of the spirits, and Lord Han, who controlled
Fengdu Fengdu County (; formerly ) is a county located in Chongqing Municipality, People's Republic of China. The county was established as Fengdu County () during the Sui Dynasty. The name was changed to Fengdu County () during the Ming Dynasty. In 1 ...
, the city of the dead. Below these principal Deities in the Lingbao hierarchy were other deities such as the Five Old Men, the
Dragon Kings The Dragon King, also known as the Dragon God, is a Chinese water and weather god. He is regarded as the dispenser of rain, commanding over all bodies of water. He is the collective personification of the ancient concept of the '' lóng'' in Ch ...
, and the Demon Kings.Robinet (1997), 158. Deities were present not only in the heavens, but also in the human body itself. They were responsible for maintaining the body's five viscera, guarding the registers of life, and regulating the souls. There were five internal deities that were particularly important in Lingbao Taoism. The Great Unity lived in the head, along with Lordling and White Prime, who could descend into the
liver The liver is a major Organ (anatomy), organ only found in vertebrates which performs many essential biological functions such as detoxification of the organism, and the Protein biosynthesis, synthesis of proteins and biochemicals necessary for ...
and
lungs The lungs are the primary organs of the respiratory system in humans and most other animals, including some snails and a small number of fish. In mammals and most other vertebrates, two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of th ...
. The Director of Destinies lived in the
heart The heart is a muscular organ in most animals. This organ pumps blood through the blood vessels of the circulatory system. The pumped blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the body, while carrying metabolic waste such as carbon dioxide t ...
and sexual organs, and finally, the Peach Child lived in the lower
dantian Dantian, dan t'ian, dan tien or tan t'ien is loosely translated as "elixir field", "sea of qi", or simply "energy center". Dantian are the "qi focus flow centers", important focal points for meditative and exercise techniques such as qigong, Ch ...
. Normally these deities resided in the heavens, but they could be activated by scriptural recitations to descend into the body.


Practices


Immortality techniques

Despite a belief in rebirth, the Lingbao School maintained the traditional Taoist idea that certain techniques could allow an adherent to achieve
immortality Immortality is the concept of eternal life. Some modern species may possess biological immortality. Some scientists, futurists, and philosophers have theorized about the immortality of the human body, with some suggesting that human immorta ...
. One technique was to ingest the essence of the sun and the moon. Practitioners would expose themselves to the celestial bodies at certain times of the month. Closing their eyes, they would visualize that the essences would solidify and enter their bodies. Once in the body, the sun's essence was matched to the heart and visualized as red, while the moon's was matched with the kidneys and seen as black. Besides interior meditation practices, immortality could be achieved through the ingestion of potions or
talismans A talisman is any object ascribed with religious or magical powers intended to protect, heal, or harm individuals for whom they are made. Talismans are often portable objects carried on someone in a variety of ways, but can also be installed perm ...
.


Rituals

Early Lingbao ritual was mostly done on an individual basis, either in a meditation chamber, or the courtyard of a house. Early practitioners were not professional priests, but rather 'students of the
Tao ''Tao'' or ''Dao'' is the natural order of the universe, whose character one's intuition must discern to realize the potential for individual wisdom, as conceived in the context of East Asian philosophy, East Asian religions, or any other phil ...
'. Later on, as the Lingbao movement developed religious institutions and an established clergy, ritual practice became more of a communal rite. Lingbao ritual shares a great deal with ritual in other Taoist traditions. Like other traditions, Lingbao rituals had a theatrical quality that involved accompanying music, dances, and
chant A chant (from French ', from Latin ', "to sing") is the iterative speaking or singing of words or sounds, often primarily on one or two main pitches called reciting tones. Chants may range from a simple melody involving a limited set of notes ...
s. Lingbao Taoism also shared the multidimensional aspect of Taoist ritual, meaning that it was carried on at several different levels simultaneously. For example, while a ritual was being performed, the priest would repeat the ritual within himself through interior
meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique – such as mindfulness, or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity – to train attention and awareness, and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally cal ...
. There are three categories of ritual in Lingbao Taoism. The first is known as the heavenly Golden Register of Rituals, and is carried out to prevent natural disasters. During the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
, this ritual was carried out in honour of the imperial family, but later it could be performed by anyone. The earthly Yellow Register ritual was performed to ensure the dead was at rest. The final type of ritual, which has not survived, was the human Jade Register, which was performed to ensure the salvation of mankind. Of the rituals that have survived, the Golden Register has assumed the role of the Jade register, ensuring salvation and preventing bad weather.


Canon

Lingbao scriptures arose as a direct result of the success of earlier Shangqing texts. Lingbao scriptures are all based on a text known as the ''Text of the Five Talismans'' (''Wufujing''), which was compiled by
Ge Chaofu Ge Chaofu () is a member of the Chinese Ge family who lived during the 4th and 5th centuries CE. He is best known for writing the Taoist scripture known as ''The Five Talismans'' (''Wufujing'') which forms the basis of the beliefs of the Lingbao Sc ...
between 397 and 402 and borrowed from the work of
Ge Hong Ge Hong (; b. 283 – d. 343 or 364), courtesy name Zhichuan (稚川), was a Chinese linguist, Taoist practitioner, philosopher, physician, politician, and writer during the Eastern Jin dynasty. He was the author of '' Essays on Chinese Characte ...
, his great uncle. Being the most ancient Lingbao text, the ''Five Talismans'' provided the framework of the remainder of the Lingbao canon, which was based on the five directions. Because all Lingbao texts descended from the ''Five Talismans'', it was believed that they had been revealed to Ge Xuan, presumably the original owner of the ''Five Talismans''. Ge Xuan is purported to have transmitted the Lingbao texts first to his disciple Zheng Siyuan, who then transmitted it to Ge's grandnephew
Ge Hong Ge Hong (; b. 283 – d. 343 or 364), courtesy name Zhichuan (稚川), was a Chinese linguist, Taoist practitioner, philosopher, physician, politician, and writer during the Eastern Jin dynasty. He was the author of '' Essays on Chinese Characte ...
(284–364), who is well known for his alchemical innovations. The claim that the Lingbao texts derive from Ge Xuan, however, was likely a way of legitimizing them through the exaggeration of their antiquity. In reality, they were likely assembled by
Ge Chaofu Ge Chaofu () is a member of the Chinese Ge family who lived during the 4th and 5th centuries CE. He is best known for writing the Taoist scripture known as ''The Five Talismans'' (''Wufujing'') which forms the basis of the beliefs of the Lingbao Sc ...
himself. Within a few years of the texts' dissemination, they had become extremely popular. The Canon itself is a mix of previous Taoist traditions, combining features from the Shangqing School and the Celestial Masters, along with other ancient texts and even some Buddhist ideas. The two most important texts of the canon besides the ''Wufujing'' are the ''Red Book of Five Writings'' (''Chi shu wupian'') and the ''Scripture of Upper Chapters on Limitless Salvation'' (''Wuliang Duren Shangpin''). According to Lu Xiujing, who edited the Lingbao Canon, there were a total of 34 texts in the canon, of which three have been lost.


Legacy

While the Lingbao school did not survive as a distinct entity, its ritual apparatus did, and it forms the basis for present-day Taoist ritual practice. In addition, many of the innovations introduced by the Lingbao School have survived to the present, including its division of the
Taoist Canon Daozang (), meaning 'Taoist Canon', consists of around 1,400 texts that were collected (after the ''Daodejing'' and ''Zhuangzi'' and Liezi which are the core Taoist texts). They were collected by Taoist monks of the period in an attempt to brin ...
into three sections corresponding to different teachings, with the ''Dongzhen'' corresponding to the Shangqing School, the ''Dongxuan'' to the Lingbao School, and the ''Dongshen'' to the Sanhuang teaching. The integration of Buddhism within Lingbao practices and beliefs ensured that Buddhist elements would remain an important aspect of later Taoism, and also aided in integrating Buddhism into all levels of society in China.Bokenkamp (2008), 663–664.


Notes


References

*Bokenkamp, Stephen. 1989. "Death and Ascent in Ling-pao Taoism." ''Taoist Resources'' 1.2, 1–20. *Bokenkamp, Stephen. 1997. ''Early Daoist Scriptures''. Berkeley: University of California Press. . *Bokenkamp, Stephen. 2001. "First Daoist Canon." In Scott Pearce, Audrey Spiro and
Patricia Ebrey Patricia Buckley Ebrey (born March 7, 1947) is an American historian specializing in cultural and gender issues during the Chinese Song Dynasty. Ebrey obtained her Bachelor of Arts from the University of Chicago in 1968 and her Masters and PhD fro ...
, eds., ''Culture and Power in the Reconstitution of the Chinese Realm'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press), 181–199. . *Bokenkamp, Stephen. 2008. "Lingbao." In Fabrizio Pregadio, ed., ''The Encyclopedia of Taoism'' (London: Routledge), 663–667. . *Fowler, Jeaneane. 2005. ''An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality''. Brighton: Sussex Academic Press. . *Jones, Stephen. 2007. ''Ritual and Music of North China: Shawm Bands in Shanxi''. Ashgate. *Lü Pengzhi(呂鵬志), Sigwalt Patrick.2005. Texts of ancient Lingbao in the history of taoism. . TOUNG – PAO. 2005;91(1–3):183. *Robinet, Isabelle. 1997. ''Taoism: Growth of a Religion''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. . *Sigwalt,Patrick(史格伟).2006. "Le rite funéraire Lingbao à travers le Wulian shengshi jing (Ve siècle)", T'oung Pao. 2006;92 (4–5) *Yamada Toshiaki. 2000. "The Lingbao School." In Livia Kohn, ed., ''Daoism Handbook'' (Leiden: Brill), 225–255. . *Zürcher, Erik. 1980. "Buddhist Influence on Early Taoism," ''T'oung Pao'' 66, 84–147.


External links


Lingbao
(Stephen R. Bokenkamp), entry from ''The Encyclopedia of Taoism'' {{good article Taoist schools