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Central Europe contains several life zones, depending on location and elevation. Geographically, Central Europe lies between the Baltic Sea and the Apennine and Balkan peninsulas. It includes the plains of Germany and Poland; the Alps; and the Carpathian Mountains. The Central European Flora region stretches from Central France to Central Romania and Southern Scandinavia. The lowlands of Central Europe contain the Central European mixed forests ecoregion, while the mountains host the Alps conifer and mixed forests and
Carpathian montane conifer forests The Carpathian montane conifer forests, also known as Carpathian montane forests, is a temperate coniferous forests ecoregion in the Carpathian Mountains of the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia, Ukraine, and Romania. Geography The ecoregion co ...
ecoregions. An important factor in the local climate and ecology of Central Europe is the elevation: an increase of elevation by causes the average air temperature to drop by and decreases the amount of water that can be held by the atmosphere by 30%. This decrease in temperature and increase in rainfall result in altitudinal zonation, where the land can be divided into life zones of similar climate and ecology, depending on elevation.


Life zones

The life zones of the Eastern and Central Alps are:
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* Planar zone, under 300 m (East Alps), under 150 m (Central German hills), agriculture. * Foothill zone, 300 – 800 m (East Alps), 150 – 300 m (Central German hills), oak limit (Quercus spp.). European Beech (''Fagus sylvatica''), Sessile oak ('' Quercus petraea''), Pedunculate oak or English oak ('' Quercus robur''), European or common hornbeam (''
Carpinus betulus ''Carpinus betulus'', the European or common hornbeam, is a species of tree in the birch family Betulaceae, native to Western Asia and central, eastern, and southern Europe, including southern England. It requires a warm climate for good growth, ...
'') and small-leaved Lime ('' Tilia cordata''). Grape crop limit (''Vitis'' spp.), around 600 m, Switzerland, North Side, South Slope, estimated 7.5 °C. Crops: maize for feed; sweet maize (''Zea mays''). * Submontane zone, 700 - 1,000 m (East Alps), 300 – 450 m (Central German hills), European Beech (''Fagus sylvatica''), Silver Fir or European Silver Fir ('' Abies alba'') and Norway Spruce (''Picea abies'').
Coniferous forests Conifers are a group of cone-bearing seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms. Scientifically, they make up the division Pinophyta (), also known as Coniferophyta () or Coniferae. The division contains a single extant class, Pinopsida. All exta ...
by reforestation limit around 800 m, North Side. * Montane zone, 800 – 1,200 m (East Alps), 450 – 650 m (Central German hills), rye (''Secale cereale'') and wheat (''Triticum'' spp.) crop limit. * Mid-montane zone, 1,000 – 1,400 m (East Alps), 650 – 800 m (Central German hills). Limit of the whole year populated areas. Limit of a growing season of more than 100 days. * Altimontane zone, 1,300 – 1,850 m (East Alps), 800 – 1,500 m (Central German hills).
Deciduous forests In the fields of horticulture and Botany, the term ''deciduous'' () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, ...
limit, Sycamore Maple ('' Acer pseudoplatanus'') and European Beech (''Fagus sylvatica''). * Subalpine zone, 1,500 – 2,500 m (East Alps), above 1,500 m (Central German hills), Scots Pine (''Pinus sylvestris''), Norway Spruce ('' Picea abies''), Swiss Pine (''Pinus cembra'', ''Arve'' or ''Zirbel'') limit and European Larch (''Larix decidua'') limit, 2,000 m, some specimens up to 2,850 m, South Slope. Tree line and '' Krummholz'' zone or
ecotone An ecotone is a transition area between two biological communities, where two communities meet and integrate. It may be narrow or wide, and it may be local (the zone between a field and forest) or regional (the transition between forest and gras ...
(stunted subalpine bushes),
Sub-alpine meadow Montane ecosystems are found on the slopes of mountains. The alpine climate in these regions strongly affects the ecosystem because temperatures fall as elevation increases, causing the ecosystem to stratify. This stratification is a crucial ...
and Alpine climate. * Alpine zone, 2,000 - 3,000 m (East Alps), Montane grasslands and shrublands.
Mountain Pine ''Pinus mugo'', known as bog pine, creeping pine, dwarf mountain pine, mugo pine, mountain pine, scrub mountain pine, or Swiss mountain pine, is a species of conifer, native to high elevation habitats from southwestern to Central Europe and So ...
or Mugo Pine (''Pinus mugo'') limit.
Alpine meadow Alpine tundra is a type of natural region or biome that does not contain trees because it is at high elevation, with an associated harsh climate. As the latitude of a location approaches the poles, the threshold elevation for alpine tundra gets ...
s just used in the warm season. * Snow zone, above 3,000 m (East Alps), alpine desert, scree, permafrost and above snow line. Roughly one quarter of the land lying between the summits of the Alps is available for cultivation. Of this low country, about one half may be vineyards and grain fields, while the remainder produces forage and grass. Of the high country, about half is utterly barren, consisting of snow fields, glaciers, bare rock, lakes and stream beds. The other half is divided between forest and pasture, and the product of this half largely supports the relatively large population. For a quarter of the year the flocks and herds are fed on the upper pastures, but the true limit of the wealth of a district is the number of animals that can be supported during the long winter, and while one part of the population is engaged in tending the beasts and in making cheese and butter, the remainder is busy cutting hay and storing up winter food for the cattle.


Submontane and montane zones

These zones contain both mixed beech-fir forests and
hay meadow A Hay meadow is an area of land set aside for the production of hay. In Britain hay meadows are typically meadows with high botanical diversity supporting a diverse assemblage of organisms ranging from soil microbes, fungi, arthropods including man ...
s. The beech forest occurs in the humid climates of the pre-Alps but disappears in the central massifs, which are drier and have a more continental climate. The forest is also found in the Southern Alps on north-facing slopes. The beech woods of the Alps are rarely pure and the beech is often found there associated with white fir ('' Abies alba''), spruce ('' Picea abies'') and various hardwoods such as the sycamore maple ('' Acer pseudoplatanus''), and Norway maple (''
Acer platanoides ''Acer platanoides'', commonly known as the Norway maple, is a species of maple native to eastern and central Europe and western Asia, from Spain east to Russia, north to southern Scandinavia and southeast to northern Iran. It was introduced to ...
''). The undergrowth in the mixed beech forest is home to shrubs such as mountain ash ('' Sorbus aucuparia''), alpine laburnum (''
Laburnum alpinum ''Laburnum alpinum'', the Scotch laburnum, Scottish laburnum or alpine laburnum, is a leguminous, (''Leguminosae''), deciduous tree. Description ''Laburnum alpinum'' is similar to ''Laburnum anagyroides'', it grows to by , at a fast rate. It is ...
''), broad-leaved spindle ('' Euonymus latifolius'') as well as small shrubby plants such as blueberry (''
Vaccinium myrtillus ''Vaccinium myrtillus'' or European blueberry is a holarctic species of shrub with edible fruit of blue color, known by the common names bilberry, blaeberry, wimberry, and whortleberry. It is more precisely called common bilberry or blue whortle ...
''), heather ('' Calluna vulgaris''), scorpion senna (''
Hippocrepis emerus ''Hippocrepis emerus'', the scorpion senna, is a species of perennial plant belonging to the genus ''Hippocrepis'' in the family Fabaceae. Description ''Hippocrepis emerus'' reaches on average of height, with a maximum of . The plant has a lig ...
''), and '' Daphne laureola''. Herbaceous plants in the forest include the wood sorrel ('' Oxalis acetosella''), false lily of the valley (''
Maianthemum bifolium ''Maianthemum bifolium'' (false lily of the valley or May lily) is often a localized common rhizomatous flowering plant, native from western Europe (including Britain''New Flora of The British Isles'', Clive Stace) east to Siberia, China and ...
''), liverwort ('' Hepatica nobilis''), purple lettuce ('' Prenanthes purpurea''), European goldenrod (''
Solidago virgaurea ''Solidago virgaurea'', the European goldenrod or woundwort, is an herbaceous perennial plant of the family Asteraceae. It is widespread across most of Europe as well as North Africa and northern, central, and southwestern Asia (China, Russia, ...
''), sweet woodruff ('' Asperula odorata''), Solomon's seal ('' Polygonatum multiflorum''), and sanicle ('' Sanicula europaea''). The other common community in the montane zone is the hay meadow, which contains very rich flora. The meadows are predominated by grasses, such as tall oatgrass, cocksfoot, meadow foxtail, timothy grass, and bluegrass. The meadows also can contain species such as woodland geranium ('' Geranium sylvaticum''), mountain buttercup ('' Ranunculus montanus''), mountain clover ('' Trifolium montanum''), great masterwort ('' Astrantia major''), the columbine meadowrue ('' Thalictrum aquilegiifolium''), ''
Potentilla grandiflora ''Potentilla grandiflora'' is a species of cinquefoil ''Potentilla'' is a genus containing over 300Guillén, A., et al. (2005)Reproductive biology of the Iberian species of ''Potentilla'' L. (Rosaceae).''Anales del Jardín Botánico de Mad ...
'', bearded bellflower (''
Campanula barbata ''Campanula barbata'', common name bearded bellflower, is a perennial flowering plant in the bellflower family Campanulaceae The family Campanulaceae (also bellflower family), of the order Asterales, contains nearly 2400 species in 84 genera ...
''), and poets' narcissus ('' Narcissus poeticus''). At higher elevation, there are two plants whose leaves look alike: poisonous white hellebore (''
Veratrum album ''Veratrum album'', the false helleborine, white hellebore, European white hellebore, or white veratrum (syn. ''Veratrum lobelianum'' Bernh.) is a poisonous plant in the family Melanthiaceae. It is native to Europe and parts of western Asia (weste ...
'') and yellow gentian ('' Gentiana lutea''). More arid meadows will contain rock rose, thyme, and mountain germander ('' Teucrium montanum''). Very humid meadows will contain meadowsweet ('' Filipendula ulmaria''), great burnet (''
Sanguisorba officinalis ''Sanguisorba officinalis'', commonly known as great burnet, is a plant in the family Rosaceae, subfamily Rosoideae. It is native throughout the cooler regions of the Northern Hemisphere in Europe, northern Asia, and northern North America. It ...
''), the whorled lousewort ('' Pedicularis verticillata'') accompanied by moisture-loving grasses such as ''
Poa nemoralis ''Poa nemoralis'', the wood bluegrass, is a perennial plant in the family Poaceae. The late-growing grass is fairly nutritious for livestock, which feed on it in the autumn, and it is used as a lawn grass for shady situations. Description It fo ...
'' and ''
Molinia caerulea ''Molinia caerulea'', known by the common name purple moor-grass, is a species of grass that is native to Europe, west Asia, and north Africa. It grows in locations from the lowlands up to in the Alps. Like most grasses, it grows best in acid so ...
''.


Subalpine zone

This zone includes various biological communities: scree, meadows, forests, wetlands.


Rocks and scree

The most characteristic plants on siliceous rock are '' Asplenium septentrionale'' and ''
Primula hirsuta ''Primula'' () is a genus of herbaceous flowering plants in the family Primulaceae. They include the primrose ('' P. vulgaris''), a familiar wildflower of banks and verges. Other common species are '' P. auricula'' (auricula), '' P. veris'' (cow ...
''. Siliceous scree is also favorable to '' Chondrosea cotyledon'', '' Phyteuma scheuchzeri'', and '' Erysimum cheiri''. Limestone scree hosts species such as '' Rumex scutatus'' , often accompanied in the central and eastern Alps by two remarkable species: '' Petasites paradoxus'' and '' Adenostyles glabra''. In the western Alps, the most characteristic plant of this community is '' Crepis pygmaea''. Shady, damp scree is the preferred habitat of the green alder ('' Alnus alnobetula''), which often forms inextricable thickets and helps stabilize the scree on steep slopes with its roots.


Meadows

In the subalpine zone, meadows or pastures are almost all of human origin. The plant species present in this environment vary according to exposure, the nature of the soil, and the humidity of the climate. In general, mowing favors plants with bulbs that flower very early in the spring ( crocuses) or very late (
colchicum ''Colchicum'' ( or ) is a genus of perennial flowering plants containing around 160 species which grow from bulb-like corms. It is a member of the botanical family Colchicaceae, and is native to West Asia, Europe, parts of the Mediterranean coa ...
s). The pastures, subjected to even stronger pressures, favor the emergence of tough species that the animals neglect, such as
matgrass Mat-grass or mat grass may refer to the following plant species: * ''Nardus stricta'', native to the Northern Hemisphere * '' Axonopus fissifolius'', native to the Americas, introduced elsewhere * ''Phyla canescens ''Phyla canescens'' is a speci ...
. This is often accompanied by mountain arnica or wolf's bane. Wet places are the domain of the megaphorbs, characterized by tall plants (''
Adenostyles alliariae ''Adenostyles alliariae'' is herbaceous perennial flowering plant in the daisy family Asteraceae The family Asteraceae, alternatively Compositae, consists of over 32,000 known species of flowering plants in over 1,900 genera within the ord ...
'', ''
Cicerbita alpina ''Cicerbita alpina'', commonly known as the alpine sow-thistle or alpine blue-sow-thistle is a perennial herbaceous species of plant sometimes placed in the genus ''Cicerbita'' of the family Asteraceae, and sometimes placed in the genus ''Lactuca ...
'', ''
Aconitum napellus ''Aconitum napellus'', monkshood, aconite, Venus' chariot or wolfsbane, is a species of highly toxic flowering plant in the genus ''Aconitum'' of the family Ranunculaceae, native and endemic to western and central Europe. It is an herbaceous pere ...
'', '' Thalictrum aquilegiifolium'', '' Delphinium elatum'', etc.). Finally, in places where livestock stay for a long time, the abundantly smoky soil is very rich in nitrogen and is suitable for species such as '' Rumex alpinus'', '' Chenopodium bonus-henricus'', and '' Cirsium spinosissimum''.


Forests

The subalpine forests in the Alps are mainly composed of four kinds of conifers: spruce, larch, Swiss pine, and
mountain pine ''Pinus mugo'', known as bog pine, creeping pine, dwarf mountain pine, mugo pine, mountain pine, scrub mountain pine, or Swiss mountain pine, is a species of conifer, native to high elevation habitats from southwestern to Central Europe and So ...
. The spruce forest is found mainly in the lower part of the subalpine zone on siliceous or sometimes calcareous subsoil when the layer of humus is sufficiently thick and acidic. The flora of the spruce forests is limited, except for mosses. The most characteristic species are '' Oxalis acetosella'', '' Moneses uniflora'', '' Lycopodium annotinum'', '' Listera cordata'' and two kinds of berries: ''
Vaccinium myrtillus ''Vaccinium myrtillus'' or European blueberry is a holarctic species of shrub with edible fruit of blue color, known by the common names bilberry, blaeberry, wimberry, and whortleberry. It is more precisely called common bilberry or blue whortle ...
'' (European blueberry) and '' Vaccinium vitis-idaea'' (lingonberry). The Swiss pine and larch forests are found at higher elevations, and are more open, which allows a much more varied flora to thrive despite harsher climatic conditions. Larch has loses its needles in the cold season, which allows it to resist snow loads well. The Swiss pine keeps its needles but also resists the weight of the snow well because its branches are short and robust; it is particularly resistant to bad weather because it grows the highest in altitude, in inhospitable areas where no other tree can compete with it. Because of these very harsh living conditions, its growth is slow. Other plants in these forests include '' Homogyne alpina'', '' Melampyrum sylvaticum'', and the rare '' Linnaea borealis''. The mountain pine grows on thin soils which are not suitable for the other species. There are two subspecies: one that grows in the Western Alps and is commonly called hooked pine ('' Pinus mugo'' ssp. ''uncinata'') and another in the Eastern Alps that is called reclining pine (''Pinus mugo'' ssp. ''mugo''). Both colonize steep slopes and scree and are accompanied by the winter heath ('' Erica carnea''), '' Polygala chamaebuxus'', '' Daphne striata'', and alpine clematis (''
Clematis alpina ''Clematis alpina'', the Alpine clematis, is a flowering deciduous vine of the genus ''Clematis''. Like many members of that genus, it is prized by gardeners for its showy flowers. It bears 1 to 3-inch spring flowers on long stalks in a wide v ...
'').


Alpine zone

The Alps are eponymous of the alpine climate typical between the tree line up to the
permanent snow The climatic snow line is the boundary between a snow-covered and snow-free surface. The actual snow line may adjust seasonally, and be either significantly higher in elevation, or lower. The permanent snow line is the level above which snow wi ...
line, roughly between .


Rocks

The plants growing on the rocks must find their nutrients in the little soil accumulated in the cracks. In general, rocks are a very hostile environment for plants, with very large temperature differences and strong winds. The plants that grow there are forced to adapt in order to survive: they thus develop long and strong rootsto better resist the wind and to extract water from the dry soil. They tend to have leathery or waxy leaves to slow down transpiration. In addition, the chemical composition of the rock greatly influences the flora: the flowers of limestone rocks will be radically different from those found on granite. Plants typical of rocks often have rosette or pincushion structures, and often belong to genera such as ''
Androsace ''Androsace'', commonly known as rock jasmine, is a genus of flowering plants in the family Primulaceae, second only to '' Primula'' in the number of species. It is predominantly Arctic–alpine, with many species in the Himalayas (where the gen ...
'',
saxifrage ''Saxifraga'' is the largest genus in the family Saxifragaceae, containing about 465 species of holarctic perennial plants, known as saxifrages or rockfoils. The Latin word ''saxifraga'' means literally "stone-breaker", from Latin ' ("rock" or " ...
s, and houseleeks.


Scree

The scree is a much less hostile environment than the rocks because they retain more soil and moisture. The plants that grow there must, however, be adapted in certain cases to the movement of the rocks and must therefore be able to regenerate quickly in the event of partial destruction. These plants often have a branching, creeping, deeply rooted rhizome that allows them to produce stems at several points ('' Trisetum distichophyllum'', '' Crepis pygmaea''). Stabilized scree, especially those composed of small blocks that better hold the earth, generally evolves towards alpine meadows.


Snowbeds

Snowbeds lie in sheltered depressions, with little sunshine, where the snow remains for a long time. Snowbeds are characterized by a moist and humus-rich soil favorable to vegetation, but only for a very short period of the year (e.g., 2 months). The characteristic plants of this environment are dwarf or creeping plants that propagate vegetatively. '' Salix herbacea'', ''
Veronica alpina ''Veronica alpina'', the alpine speedwell or alpine veronica, is a species of flowering plant in the genus '' Veronica'', native to Canada, Greenland, Iceland, the Faroes, Svalbard, most of Europe, parts of Siberia, northern Pakistan, the western ...
'', '' Taraxacum alpinum'', and ''
Soldanella pusilla The genus ''Soldanella'', commonly known in English as snowbell, includes about 15 species of flowering plants native to European mountains, from the Pyrenees, the Apennine Mountains, Apennines, the Alps, the Carpathian Mountains, Carpathians an ...
'' are adapted to these cold depressions.


Alpine meadows

These meadows are characterized by a continuous vegetation cover that are very rich in species and dominated by grasses and sedges. There are a large number of different types of meadows depending on the geographical location and the nature of the soil. The grass ''
Sesleria caerulea ''Sesleria caerulea'', the blue moor-grass, is a species of perennial grass in the family Poaceae, native to Europe. References GrassBase entry* * Animadv. bot. spec. alt. 2:18, t. 6, fig. 3-5. 1764 * Foggi, B. et al. 2001. Nomenclatural ...
'' and the sedge '' Carex firma'' dominate meadows on dry calcareous soil. On more humid calcareous soil, '' Carex ferruginea'' or '' Festuca violacea'' occur frequently. These dominant plants are accompanied by typically alpine plants such as gentians (e.g., ''
Gentiana clusii ''Gentiana clusii'', commonly known as flower of the sweet-lady or Clusius' gentian, is a large-flowered, short-stemmed gentian, native to Europe. It is named after Carolus Clusius, one of the earliest botanists to study alpine flora. Descriptio ...
'', '' Gentiana terglouensis''), the alpine milkvetch, and many more. The species richness on siliceous soil is as high as limestone soil. In dry and well-exposed places, meadows with ''
Festuca varia ''Festuca'' (fescue) is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the grass family (biology), family Poaceae (subfamily Pooideae). They are evergreen or herbaceous plant, herbaceous perennial plant, perennial tufted grasses with a height range of ...
'' or '' Festuca spadicea'' will be found . Above , the most characteristic species is '' Carex curvula'' accompanied by showy species such as '' Gentiana punctata'', '' Gentiana alpina'' or '' Rhododendron ferrugineum''.


Glacial zone

On the higher parts of lofty mountains in the Alps, more snow falls in each year than melts. A portion of this is carried away by the wind before it is consolidated, but a large portion accumulates in hollows and depressions of the surface and is gradually converted into glacier ice which descends by slowly flowing into the deeper valleys where it help swell perennial streams. Mountain snow does not lie in beds of uniform thickness and some parts are more exposed to the sun and warm air than others. Beds of snow commonly alternate with exposed slopes covered with brilliant vegetation without an obvious boundary of perpetual snow. A seemingly clear boundary seems visible when a high mountain chain is viewed from a distance: Similar conditions are repeated at many different points, so that the level at which large snow beds show themselves can be seen as approximately horizontal. But this is true only as far as the conditions are similar. On the opposite sides of the same chain the exposure to the sun or to warm winds may cause a wide difference in the level of permanent snow, though the increased fall of snow on the side exposed to moist winds may more than compensate for the sun's rays. Still, the "line of perpetual snow" is not fixed. The occurrence of favorable meteorological conditions during several successive seasons may and does increase the extent of the snowfields and lower the limit of seemingly permanent snow, while the opposite may cause the limit to rise higher on the flanks of the mountains. Attempts to fix accurately the level of perpetual snow in the Alps are difficult. Local accuracy might be established for a particular district. In some parts of the Alps, the limit is about elevation, while in others it cannot be placed much below . As very little snow remains on rocks angled more than 60°, this is soon removed by the wind, some steep masses of rock remain bare even near the summits of the highest peaks, but as almost every spot offering the least hold for vegetation is covered with snow, few flowering plants are seen above . Given the extremely harsh climatic conditions of this zone, few plant species can find a favorable environment to thrive. A few high altitude plants, however, manage to grow in certain crevices of rocks sometimes at very high altitudes. A specimen of glacier buttercup was found at the top of the Finsteraarhorn at an altitude of more than In the glacial zone, the species distribution is very different between calcareous and siliceous rocks. On limestone rock, we can find '' Androsace helvetica'',
saxifrage ''Saxifraga'' is the largest genus in the family Saxifragaceae, containing about 465 species of holarctic perennial plants, known as saxifrages or rockfoils. The Latin word ''saxifraga'' means literally "stone-breaker", from Latin ' ("rock" or " ...
s, '' Athamanta cretensis'', and '' Draba tomentosa''. On siliceous rock, one will come across '' Androsace vandellii'', two characteristic species of houseleek ('' Sempervivum montanum'' and '' Sempervivum arachnoideum''), and various saxifrages (e.g., '' Saxifraga aspera'').


Climate

The effect of elevation on climate is evident when comparing climate normals as a function of elevation in Switzerland:


See also

* Climate of the Alps *
Life zones of the Mediterranean region The climate and ecology of land immediately surrounding the Mediterranean Sea is influenced by several factors. Overall, the land has a Mediterranean climate, with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers. The climate induces characteristic Medit ...


References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Central Europe Climate of the Alps Ecology of the Alps Palearctic realm Ecoregions of Europe Montane ecology Geography of Central Europe