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Lech-Lecha, Lekh-Lekha, or Lech-L'cha ( ''leḵ-ləḵā''—
Lech-Lecha, Lekh-Lekha, or Lech-L'cha ( ''leḵ-ləḵā''—Hebrew
Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
for "go!" or "leave!", literally "go for you"—the fifth and sixth words in the parashah) is the third weekly Torah portion
It is a custom among religious Jewish communities for a weekly Torah portion to be read during Jewish prayer services on Monday, Thursday, and Saturday. The full name, ''Parashat HaShavua'' ( he, פָּרָשַׁת הַשָּׁבוּעַ), is p ...
(, ''parashah'') in the annual Jewish
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
cycle of Torah reading
Torah reading (; ') is a Jewish religious tradition that involves the public reading of a set of passages from a Torah scroll. The term often refers to the entire ceremony of removing the scroll (or scrolls) from the Torah ark, chanting th ...
. It constitutes .
The parashah tells the stories of God's
In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...
calling of Abram (who would become Abraham
Abraham, ; ar, , , name=, group= (originally Abram) is the common Hebrew patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father of the special relationship between the Je ...
), Abram's passing off his wife Sarai as his sister, Abram's dividing the land with his nephew Lot, the war between the four kings and the five, the covenant between the pieces, Sarai's tensions with her maid Hagar
Hagar, of uncertain origin; ar, هَاجَر, Hājar; grc, Ἁγάρ, Hagár; la, Agar is a biblical woman. According to the Book of Genesis, she was an Egyptian slave, a handmaiden of Sarah (then known as ''Sarai''), whom Sarah gave to ...
and Hagar's son Ishmael
Ishmael ''Ismaḗl''; Classical/Qur'anic Arabic: إِسْمَٰعِيْل; Modern Standard Arabic: إِسْمَاعِيْل ''ʾIsmāʿīl''; la, Ismael was the first son of Abraham, the common patriarch of the Abrahamic religions; and is cons ...
, and the covenant of circumcision (''brit milah
The ''brit milah'' ( he, בְּרִית מִילָה ''bərīṯ mīlā'', ; Ashkenazi pronunciation: , " covenant of circumcision"; Yiddish pronunciation: ''bris'' ) is the ceremony of circumcision in Judaism. According to the Book of Genes ...
'').
The parashah is made up of 6,336 Hebrew letters, 1,686 Hebrew words, 126 verses, and 208 lines in a Torah Scroll (''Sefer Torah
A ( he, סֵפֶר תּוֹרָה; "Book of Torah"; plural: ) or Torah scroll is a handwritten copy of the Torah, meaning the five books of Moses (the first books of the Hebrew Bible). The Torah scroll is mainly used in the ritual of To ...
''). Jew
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""T ...
s read it on the third Sabbath
In Abrahamic religions, the Sabbath () or Shabbat (from Hebrew ) is a day set aside for rest and worship. According to the Book of Exodus, the Sabbath is a day of rest on the seventh day, commanded by God to be kept as a holy day of rest, as ...
after Simchat Torah
Simchat Torah or Simhat Torah (, lit., "Rejoicing with/of the Torah", Ashkenazi: ''Simchas Torah'') is a Jewish holiday that celebrates and marks the conclusion of the annual cycle of public Torah readings, and the beginning of a new cycle. Simch ...
, in October or November.
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , '' aliyot''. In theMasoretic Text
The Masoretic Text (MT or 𝕸; he, נֻסָּח הַמָּסוֹרָה, Nūssāḥ Hammāsōrā, lit. 'Text of the Tradition') is the authoritative Hebrew and Aramaic text of the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) in Rabbinic Judaism. ...
of the Tanakh
The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
'' Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
'' paragraphs, often abbreviated with the Hebrew letter ('' peh'')). Parashah Lech-Lecha has several further subdivisions, called "closed portion" (, ''setumah'') divisions (abbreviated with the Hebrew letter (''
In the continuation of the reading,
As the reading continues in chapter , having borne no children after 10 years in Canaan, Sarai bade Abram to consort with her Egyptian
20
may be related to a name in a 14th-century BCE
(Land of Israel, circa 200 CE), in, e.g.,
Rabbi Isaac compared Abram's thinking to that of a man who was travelling from place to place when he saw a building in flames. He wondered whether it was possible that the building could lack a person to look after it. At that moment, the owner of the building appeared and said that he owned the building. Similarly, Abram questioned whether it was conceivable that the world could exist without a Guide to look after it. At that moment, God told Abram that God is the Guide, the Sovereign of the Universe. At that moment, in the words of , "The Lord said to Abraham: 'Get out of your country.'"
A 
Reading God's command to Abram in to get out of his country along with Song of Songs , "Your ointments have a goodly fragrance," Rabbi Berekiah taught that before God called Abram, Abram resembled a vial of 
Rabbi Berekiah noted that in , God had already said, "I will bless you," and so asked what God added by then saying, "and you be a blessing." Rabbi Berekiah explained that God was thereby conveying to Abraham that up until that point, God had to bless God's world, but thereafter, God entrusted the ability to bless to Abraham, and Abraham could thenceforth bless whomever he wanted to bless.
Rav Judah deduced from that to refuse to say grace when given a cup to bless will shorten a person's life. And Rabbi Joshua ben Levi deduced from that every 
Rabbi Haggai said in Rabbi Isaac's name that all of the Matriarchs were
in, e.g., Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, translators, ''Midrash Rabbah: Genesis'', volume 1, pages 330–31. Similarly, Rabbi Joshua of Sikhnin taught that God gave Abraham a sign: Everything that happened to him would also happen to his children:
Rabbi Azariah and 
Rav and 
Rabbi
in, e.g., ''Koren Talmud Bavli: Nedarim''. Commentary by Adin Even-Israel (Steinsaltz), volume 18, page 127. Jerusalem: Koren Publishers, 2015.
Reading the report in that Abram led 318 men, Rabbi Ammi bar Abba said that Abram's servant Eliezer outweighed them all. The Gemara reported that others (employing 
Midrash identified the Melchizedek of with Noah's son
in, e.g., Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, translators, ''Midrash Rabbah: Genesis'', volume 1, pages 355–56. A Midrash taught that Melchizedek called Jerusalem "Salem." The Rabbis said that Melchizedek instructed Abraham in the Torah. Rabbi Eleazar said that Melchizedek's school was one of three places where the Holy Spirit manifested itself. Rabbi Judah said in Rabbi Nehorai's name that Melchizedek's blessing yielded prosperity for Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Ephraim Miksha'ah the disciple of
The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer identified Abraham's servant Eliezer introduced in with the unnamed steward of Abraham's household in . The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer told that when Abraham left 
The 
Reading , “And he said: ‘O Lord God, whereby shall I know that I shall inherit it?’” Rabbi Hama bar Hanina taught that Abraham was not complaining, but asked God through what merit Abraham would inherit the land. God replied that Abraham and his descendants would merit the land through the atoning sacrifices that God would institute for Abraham's descendants, as indicated by the next verse, in which God said, “Take Me a heifer of three years old . . . .”
Reading , “And He said to him: ‘Take me a heifer of three years old (, ''meshuleshet''), a she-goat of three years old (, ''meshuleshet''), and a ram of three years old (, ''meshulash''),’” a Midrash read , ''meshuleshet'', to mean “three-fold” or “three kinds,” indicating sacrifices for three different purposes. The Midrash deduced that God thus showed Abraham three kinds of bullocks, three kinds of goats, and three kinds of rams that Abraham's descendants would need to sacrifice. The three kinds of bullocks were: (1) the bullock that would require the Israelites to sacrifice on the Day of Atonement (''
in, e.g., ''Talmud Bavli''. Elucidated by Mendy Wachsman; edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, volume 70, page 17b1. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2004. A Midrash found in support for the proverb that if a person tells you that you have a donkey's ears, do not believe it, but if two tell it to you, order a halter. For Abraham called Hagar Sarai's servant the first time in , saying, "Behold, your maid is in your hand." And then the angel called Hagar Sarai's servant the second time in , saying, "Hagar, Sarai's handmaid." Thus, thereafter in , Hagar acknowledged that she was Sarai's servant, saying, "I flee from the face of my mistress Sarai."Genesis Rabbah 45:7
in, e.g., Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, translators, ''Midrash Rabbah: Genesis'', volume 1, page 385. Similarly, Rava asked Rabbah bar Mari where Scripture supports the saying of the Rabbis that if your neighbor (justifiably) calls you a donkey, you should put a saddle on your back (and not quarrel to convince the neighbor otherwise). Rabbah bar Mari replied that the saying found support in , where first the angel calls Hagar "Sarai's handmaid," and then Hagar acknowledged that she was Sarai's servant, saying, "I flee from the face of my mistress Sarai."
Noting that the words "and an angel of the Lord said to her" occur three times in , a Midrash asked how many angels visited Hagar. Rabbi Hama bar Rabbi Hanina said that five angels visited her, for each time the text mentions "speech," it refers to an angel. The Rabbis said that four angels visited her, as the word "angel" occurs 4 times. Rabbi Hiyya taught that Hagar's encounter with the angels showed how great the difference was between the generations of the Patriarchs and Matriarchs and later generations. Rabbi Hiyya noted that after reports that Manoah and his wife, the parents of
Rabbi Ammi bar Abba employed gematria to interpret the meaning of Abram's name change in from Abram () to Abraham (). According to Rabbi Ammi bar Abba, at first God gave Abram mastery over 243 of his body parts, as the numerical value of the Hebrew letters in Abram is 243. Then God gave Abraham mastery over 248 of his body parts, adding five body parts, as the numerical value of the Hebrew letter '' hei'' () that God added to his name is five. The Gemara explained that as a reward for Abraham's undergoing circumcision, God granted Abraham control over his two eyes, his two ears, and the organ that he circumcised.
The Mishnah notes that transgressing the command of circumcision in is one of 36 transgressions that cause the transgressor to be cut off from his people.
The Gemara read the command of to require an uncircumcised adult man to become circumcised, and the Gemara read the command of to require the father to circumcise his infant child.
Mishnah Avot 5:3
ref name=Avot5:3/> (see "In classical rabbinic interpretation" above),
According to the ''
Gunther Plaut noted that the two pieces of Genesis, the primordial history in and the story of Abraham and Sarah and their descendants in , are quite distinct from each other, held together only by a brief genealogical bridge in . makes no mention of , not even an allusion, suggesting that the two pieces were originally quite separate and only later joined into one book.W. Gunther Plaut. ''The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition''. Revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, page 4. New York: 
James Kugel wrote that over the last 100 years, scholarship has performed something of a zigzag about the 
The ''Kitzur Shulchan Aruch'' cites the words of , "Fear not, Abram" (, ''al-tirah Avram''), as an example of a verse where a missing letter , '' yud'', would cause one to have to take out another Torah scroll to read, as it would be a serious error in the scroll.
And the ''Kitzur Shulchan Aruch'' interprets God's words to Abraham in , "the father of a multitude of nations have I made you," to mean that previously, Abram was father only to Aram, but from that point onward, he would be a father to all nations. Thus, the ''Kitzur Shulchan Aruch'' cites to support the proposition that a convert may be included in a group of three or more (''mezuman'') for the purposes of the blessing after meals (, '' Birkat Hamazon'') and may say the blessing and the words of the blessing, "for giving our ancestors as a heritage."
chapter 5
of ''
The 
The ''Amidah'' prayer draws on God's words in , "Fear not, Abram, I am a shield to you," to refer to God as "Shield of Abraham."
In the hymn ''
Mishnah Shabbat 18:3Mishnah Shabbat 18:3
in turn, makes clear the precedence of the law of circumcision in over even the observance of the Sabbath.
Vassal treaties
of
''The Hittite Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago'', vol. P, 36–37
Chicago: University of Chicago, 1997.
''The Genesis Apocryphon''
Dead Sea scroll 1Q20. Land of Israel, 1st century BCE, in
'' Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
'' paragraphs, often abbreviated with the Hebrew letter ('' peh'')). Parashah Lech-Lecha has several further subdivisions, called "closed portion" (, ''setumah'') divisions (abbreviated with the Hebrew letter (''
samekh
Samekh (Phoenician ''sāmek'' ; Hebrew ''samekh'' , Syriac ''semkaṯ'') is the fifteenth letter of the Semitic abjads, including the Hebrew alphabet.
Samekh represents a voiceless alveolar fricative . Unlike most Semitic consonants, the p ...
'')) within the open portion divisions. The first open portion divides the first reading. The second open portion covers the balance of the first and all of the second and third readings. The third open portion spans the remaining readings. Closed portion divisions further divide the fifth and sixth readings.
First reading—Genesis 12:1–13
In the first reading, God told Abram to leave his native land and his father's house for a land that God would show him, promising to make of him a great nation, bless him, make his name great, bless those who blessed him, andcurse
A curse (also called an imprecation, malediction, execration, malison, anathema, or commination) is any expressed wish that some form of adversity or misfortune will befall or attach to one or more persons, a place, or an object. In particula ...
those who cursed him. Following God's command, at age 75, Abram took his wife Sarai, his nephew Lot, and the wealth and persons that they had acquired in Haran
Haran or Aran ( he, הָרָן ''Hārān'') is a man in the Book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible. He died in Ur of the Chaldees, was a son of Terah, and brother of Abraham. Through his son Lot, Haran was the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammoni ...
, and traveled to the terebinth of Moreh
Givat HaMoreh (Hebrew: גבעת המוֹרֶה), in Arabic: Jebel ed-Duhy, is a hill in northern Israel on the northeast side of the Jezreel Valley. The highest peak reaches an altitude of , while the bottom of the Jezreel Valley is situated a ...
, at Shechem
Shechem ( ), also spelled Sichem ( ; he, שְׁכֶם, ''Šəḵem''; ; grc, Συχέμ, Sykhém; Samaritan Hebrew: , ), was a Canaanite and Israelite city mentioned in the Amarna Letters, later appearing in the Hebrew Bible as the first c ...
in Canaan
Canaan (; Phoenician: 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍 – ; he, כְּנַעַן – , in pausa – ; grc-bib, Χανααν – ;The current scholarly edition of the Greek Old Testament spells the word without any accents, cf. Septuaginta : id est Vetus T ...
. God appeared to Abram to tell him that God would assign the land to his heirs, and Abram built an altar
An altar is a table or platform for the presentation of religious offerings, for sacrifices, or for other ritualistic purposes. Altars are found at shrines, temples, churches, and other places of worship. They are used particularly in pagan ...
to God. Abram then moved to the hill country east of Bethel
Bethel ( he, בֵּית אֵל, translit=Bēṯ 'Ēl, "House of El" or "House of God",Bleeker and Widegren, 1988, p. 257. also transliterated ''Beth El'', ''Beth-El'', ''Beit El''; el, Βαιθήλ; la, Bethel) was an ancient Israelite sanc ...
and built an altar to God there and invoked God by name. Then Abram journeyed toward the Negeb. The first open portion ends here.
In the continuation of the reading, famine
A famine is a widespread scarcity of food, caused by several factors including war, natural disasters, crop failure, population imbalance, widespread poverty, an economic catastrophe or government policies. This phenomenon is usually accompan ...
struck the land, so Abram went down to Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning the North Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via a land bridg ...
, asking Sarai to say that she was his sister so that the Egyptians would not kill him. The first reading ends here.
Second reading—Genesis 12:14–13:4
In the second reading, when Abram and Sarai entered Egypt,Pharaoh
Pharaoh (, ; Egyptian: '' pr ꜥꜣ''; cop, , Pǝrro; Biblical Hebrew: ''Parʿō'') is the vernacular term often used by modern authors for the kings of ancient Egypt who ruled as monarchs from the First Dynasty (c. 3150 BC) until th ...
's courtiers praised Sarai's beauty to Pharaoh, and she was taken into Pharaoh's palace. Pharaoh took Sarai as his wife. Because of her, Abram acquired sheep
Sheep or domestic sheep (''Ovis aries'') are domesticated, ruminant mammals typically kept as livestock. Although the term ''sheep'' can apply to other species in the genus '' Ovis'', in everyday usage it almost always refers to domesticate ...
, oxen, donkey
The domestic donkey is a hoofed mammal in the family Equidae, the same family as the horse. It derives from the African wild ass, ''Equus africanus'', and may be classified either as a subspecies thereof, ''Equus africanus asinus'', or as ...
s, slaves
Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
, and camel
A camel (from: la, camelus and grc-gre, κάμηλος (''kamēlos'') from Hebrew or Phoenician: גָמָל ''gāmāl''.) is an even-toed ungulate in the genus ''Camelus'' that bears distinctive fatty deposits known as "humps" on its back. ...
s, but God afflicted Pharaoh and his household with mighty plagues. Pharaoh questioned Abram why he had not told Pharaoh that Sarai was Abram's wife. Pharaoh returned Sarai to Abram and had his men take them away with their possessions. Abram, Sarai, and Lot returned to the altar near Bethel. The second reading ends here.
Third reading—Genesis 13:5–18
In the third reading, Abram and Lot now had so many sheep and cattle that the land could not support them both, and their herdsmen quarreled. Abram proposed to Lot that they separate, inviting Lot to choose which land he would take. Lot saw how well watered the plain of theJordan
Jordan ( ar, الأردن; tr. ' ), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,; tr. ' is a country in Western Asia. It is situated at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe, within the Levant region, on the East Bank of the Jordan Rive ...
was, so he chose it for himself, and journeyed eastward, settling near Sodom
Sodom may refer to:
Places Historic
* Sodom and Gomorrah, cities mentioned in the Book of Genesis
United States
* Sodom, Kentucky, a ghost town
* Sodom, New York, a hamlet
* Sodom, Ohio, an unincorporated community
* Sodom, West Virginia, ...
, a city of wicked sinners, while Abram remained in Canaan. God promised to give all the land that Abram could see to him and his offspring forever, and to make his offspring as numerous as the dust of the earth. Abram moved to the terebinths of Mamre in Hebron
Hebron ( ar, الخليل or ; he, חֶבְרוֹן ) is a Palestinian. city in the southern West Bank, south of Jerusalem. Nestled in the Judaean Mountains, it lies above sea level. The second-largest city in the West Bank (after Eas ...
, and built an altar there to God. The third reading and the second open portion end here with the end of chapter .
Fourth reading—Genesis 14:1–20
In the fourth reading, in chapter , theMesopotamia
Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the ...
n Kings Amraphel
In the Hebrew Bible, Amraphel ( he, אַמְרָפֶל, translit=’Amrāp̄el; el, Ἀμαρφάλ, Amarphál; la, Amraphel) was a king of Shinar (Hebrew for Sumer) in Book of Genesis Chapter 14, who invaded Canaan along with other kings unde ...
of Shinar
Shinar (; Hebrew , Septuagint ) is the name for the southern region of Mesopotamia used by the Hebrew Bible.
Etymology
Hebrew שנער ''Šinʿar'' is equivalent to the Egyptian ''Sngr'' and Hittite ''Šanḫar(a)'', all referring to southern M ...
, Arioch
Arioch ( ''’Aryōḵ'') appears in the Book of Genesis as the name of the "King of Ellasar", who participated in the Battle of the Vale of Siddim. The battle is described in Genesis as consisting of four kings, led by Chedorlaomer of Elam (Am ...
of Ellasar, Chedorlaomer of Elam
Elam (; Linear Elamite: ''hatamti''; Cuneiform Elamite: ; Sumerian: ; Akkadian: ; he, עֵילָם ''ʿēlām''; peo, 𐎢𐎺𐎩 ''hūja'') was an ancient civilization centered in the far west and southwest of modern-day Iran, stretc ...
, and Tidal of Goiim made war on the Canaanite kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah According to the Bible, Admah (Heb. אַדְמָה) was one of the five cities of the Vale of Siddim. It was destroyed along with Sodom and Gomorrah. It is supposed by William F. Albright to be the same as the "Adam" of . The location of Admah is ...
, Zeboiim, and Zoar, who joined forces at the Battle of Siddim
The Battle of the Vale of Siddim, also often called the War of Nine Kings or the Slaughter of Chedorlaomer, is an event in the Hebrew Bible book of that occurs in the days of Abram and Lot. The Vale of Siddim was the battleground for the cities ...
, now the Dead Sea
The Dead Sea ( he, יַם הַמֶּלַח, ''Yam hamMelaḥ''; ar, اَلْبَحْرُ الْمَيْتُ, ''Āl-Baḥrū l-Maytū''), also known by other names, is a salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east and Israel and the West Ban ...
. The Canaanite kings had served Chedorlaomer for twelve years, but rebelled in the thirteenth year. In the fourteenth year, Chedorlaomer and the Mesopotamian kings with him went on a military campaign and defeated several peoples in and around Canaan: the Rephaim, the Zuzim, the Emim, the Horites
The Horites ( he, ''Ḥōrīm''), were a people mentioned in the Torah (, ) inhabiting areas around Mount Seir in Canaan ().
Name
According to Archibald Sayce (1915), the Horites have been identified with references in Egyptian inscriptions ...
, the Amalek
Amalek (; he, עֲמָלֵק, , ar, عماليق ) was a nation described in the Hebrew Bible as a staunch enemy of the Israelites. The name "Amalek" can refer to the nation's founder, a grandson of Esau; his descendants, the Amalekites; or th ...
ites, and the Amorite
The Amorites (; sux, 𒈥𒌅, MAR.TU; Akkadian: 𒀀𒈬𒊒𒌝 or 𒋾𒀉𒉡𒌝/𒊎 ; he, אֱמוֹרִי, 'Ĕmōrī; grc, Ἀμορραῖοι) were an ancient Northwest Semitic-speaking people from the Levant who also occupied lar ...
s. Then the kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboiim, and Zoar engaged the four Mesopotamian kings in battle in the Valley of Siddim. The Mesopotamians routed the Canaanites, and the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah fled into bitumen
Asphalt, also known as bitumen (, ), is a sticky, black, highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found in natural deposits or may be a refined product, and is classed as a pitch. Before the 20th century, the term a ...
pits in the valley, while the rest escaped to the hill country. The Mesopotamians seized all the wealth of Sodom and Gomorrah, as well as Lot and his possessions, and departed. A fugitive brought the news to Abram, who mustered his 318 retainers, and pursued the invaders north to Dan
Dan or DAN may refer to:
People
* Dan (name), including a list of people with the name
** Dan (king), several kings of Denmark
* Dan people, an ethnic group located in West Africa
**Dan language, a Mande language spoken primarily in Côte d'Ivoir ...
. Abram and his servants defeated them at night, chased them north of Damascus
)), is an adjective which means "spacious".
, motto =
, image_flag = Flag of Damascus.svg
, image_seal = Emblem of Damascus.svg
, seal_type = Seal
, map_caption =
, ...
, and brought back all the people and possessions, including Lot and his possessions. When Abram returned, the king of Sodom came out to meet him in the Valley of Shaveh, the Valley of the King. King Melchizedek of Salem (Jerusalem
Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
), a priest of God Most High, brought out bread
Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour (usually wheat) and water, usually by baking. Throughout recorded history and around the world, it has been an important part of many cultures' diet. It is one of the oldest human-made f ...
and wine
Wine is an alcoholic drink typically made from Fermentation in winemaking, fermented grapes. Yeast in winemaking, Yeast consumes the sugar in the grapes and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process. Different ...
and blessed Abram and God Most High, and he gave him a tenth of everything. The fourth reading ends here.
Fifth reading—Genesis 14:21–15:6
In the fifth reading, the king of Sodom offered Abram to keep all the possessions if he would merely return the people, but Abram swore to God Most High not to take so much as a thread or a sandal strap from Sodom, but would take only shares for the men who went with him. A closed portion ends here with the end of chapter . As the reading continues in chapter , some time later, the word of God appeared to Abram, saying not to fear, for his reward would be very great, but Abram questioned what God could give him, as he was destined to die childless, and his stewardEliezer
Eliezer (, "Help/Court of El") was the name of at least three different individuals in the Bible.
Eliezer of Damascus
Eliezer of Damascus () was, according to the Targums, the son of Nimrod. Eliezer was head of the patriarch Abraham's house ...
of Damascus would be his heir. The word of God replied that Eliezer would not be his heir, Abram's own son would. God took Abram outside and bade him to count the stars, for so numerous would his offspring be, and because Abram put his trust in God, God reckoned it to his merit. The fifth reading ends here.
Sixth reading—Genesis 15:7–17:6
In the sixth reading, God directed Abram to bring three heifers, three goats, three rams, a turtledove, and a bird, to cut the non-birds in two, and to place each half opposite the other. Abram drove away birds of prey that came down upon the carcasses, and as the sun was about to set, he fell into a deep sleep. God told Abram that his offspring would be strangers in a land not theirs, and be enslaved 400 years, but God would execute judgment on the nation they were to serve, and in the end they would go free with great wealth and return in the fourth generation, after the iniquity of the Amorites was complete. And there appeared a smoking oven, and a flaming torch, which passed between the pieces. And God made a covenant with Abram to assign to his offspring the land from the river of Egypt to theEuphrates
The Euphrates () is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Tigris–Euphrates river system, Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia ( ''the land between the rivers'') ...
: the land of the Kenite
According to the Hebrew Bible, the Kenites ( or ; he, ''Qēinī'') were a nomadic tribe in the ancient Levant. The Kenites were coppersmiths and metalworkers. According to some scholars, they are descendants of Cain, Harris, Stephen L., Underst ...
s, the Kenizzites, the Kadmonites The Kadmonites ( ''Qaḏmōnī'') were, according to the Hebrew Bible, a tribe mentioned as inhabiting the land promised by God in a covenant to Abraham in .
The tribe's identity is unknown. According to M.G. Eastons Bible Dictionary, the Kadmon ...
, the Hittites
The Hittites () were an Anatolian people who played an important role in establishing first a kingdom in Kussara (before 1750 BC), then the Kanesh or Nesha kingdom (c. 1750–1650 BC), and next an empire centered on Hattusa in north-cent ...
, the Perizzites, the Rephaim, the Amorites, the Canaanites, the Girgashites, and the Jebusite
The Jebusites (; ISO 259-3 ''Ybusi'') were, according to the books of Joshua and Samuel from the Tanakh, a Canaanite tribe that inhabited Jerusalem, then called Jebus (Hebrew: ''Yəḇūs'', "trampled place") prior to the conquest initiated b ...
s. A closed portion ends here with the end of chapter .
As the reading continues in chapter , having borne no children after 10 years in Canaan, Sarai bade Abram to consort with her Egyptian maidservant
A handmaiden, handmaid or maidservant is a personal maid or female Domestic worker, servant. Depending on culture or historical period, a handmaiden may be of slave status or may be simply an employee. However, the term ''handmaiden'' generally ...
Hagar
Hagar, of uncertain origin; ar, هَاجَر, Hājar; grc, Ἁγάρ, Hagár; la, Agar is a biblical woman. According to the Book of Genesis, she was an Egyptian slave, a handmaiden of Sarah (then known as ''Sarai''), whom Sarah gave to ...
, so that Sarai might have a son through her, and Abram did as Sarai requested. When Hagar saw that she had conceived, Sarai was lowered in her esteem, and Sarai complained to Abram. Abram told Sarai that her maid was in her hands, and Sarai treated her harshly, so Hagar ran away. An angel
In various theistic religious traditions an angel is a supernatural spiritual being who serves God.
Abrahamic religions often depict angels as benevolent celestial intermediaries between God (or Heaven) and humanity. Other roles ...
of God found Hagar by a spring of water in the wilderness, and asked her where she came from and where she was going, and she replied that she was running away from her mistress. The angel told her to go back to her mistress and submit to her harsh treatment, for God would make Hagar's offspring too numerous to count; she would bear a son whom she should name Ishmael, for God had paid heed to her suffering. Ishmael
Ishmael ''Ismaḗl''; Classical/Qur'anic Arabic: إِسْمَٰعِيْل; Modern Standard Arabic: إِسْمَاعِيْل ''ʾIsmāʿīl''; la, Ismael was the first son of Abraham, the common patriarch of the Abrahamic religions; and is cons ...
would be a wild donkey of a man, with his hand against everyone, and everyone's hand against him, but he would dwell alongside his kinsmen. Hagar called God " El-roi," meaning that she had gone on seeing after God saw her, and the well was called Beer-lahai-roi. And when Abram was 86 years old, Hagar bore him a son, and Abram gave him the name Ishmael. A closed portion ends here with the end of chapter .
As the reading continues in chapter , when Abram was 99 years old, God appeared to Abram as El Shaddai
El Shaddai ( ''ʾĒl Šadday''; ) or just Shaddai is one of the names of the God of Israel. ''El Shaddai'' is conventionally translated into English as ''God Almighty'' (''Deus Omnipotens'' in Latin, الله عز وجل Allāh 'azzawajal in Ara ...
and asked him to walk in God's ways and be blameless, for God would establish a covenant with him and make him exceedingly numerous. Abram threw himself on his face, and God changed his name from Abram to Abraham, promising to make him the father of a multitude of nations and kings. The sixth reading ends here.
Seventh reading—Genesis 17:7–27
In the seventh reading, God promised to maintain the covenant with Abraham and his offspring as an everlasting covenant throughout the ages, and assigned all the land of Canaan to him and his offspring as an everlasting holding. God further told Abraham that he and his offspring throughout the ages were to keep God's covenant and every male (including every slave) was to becircumcised
Circumcision is a procedure that removes the foreskin from the human penis. In the most common form of the operation, the foreskin is extended with forceps, then a circumcision device may be placed, after which the foreskin is excised. Topic ...
in the flesh of his foreskin at the age of eight days as a sign of the covenant with God. If any male failed to circumcise the flesh of his foreskin, that person was to be cut off from his kin for having broken God's covenant. And God renamed Sarai as Sarah, and told Abraham that God would bless her and give Abraham a son by her so that she would give rise to nations and rulers. Abraham threw himself on his face and laughed at the thought that a child could be born to a man of a hundred and a woman of ninety, and Abraham asked God to bless Ishmael. But God told him that Sarah would bear Abraham a son, and Abraham was to name him Isaac
Isaac; grc, Ἰσαάκ, Isaák; ar, إسحٰق/إسحاق, Isḥāq; am, ይስሐቅ is one of the three patriarchs of the Israelites and an important figure in the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. He was ...
, and God would maintain the everlasting covenant with him and his offspring. In response to Abraham's prayer, God blessed Ishmael as well and promised to make him exceedingly numerous, the father of twelve chieftains and a great nation. But God would maintain the covenant with Isaac, whom Sarah would bear at the same season the next year. And when God finished speaking, God disappeared. That very day, Abraham circumcised himself, Ishmael, and every male in his household, as God had directed. The maftir
Maftir ( he, מפטיר, , concluder) is the last person called up to the Torah on Shabbat and holiday mornings: this person also reads (or at least recites the blessings overs) the ''haftarah'' portion from a related section of the Nevi'im (pro ...
() reading that concludes the parashahSee, e.g., Menachem Davis, editor, ''Schottenstein Edition Interlinear Chumash: Bereishis/Genesis'', page 85. reports that when Abraham circumcised himself and his household, Abraham was 99 and Ishmael was 13. The seventh reading, the third open portion, chapter , and the parashah end here.
Readings according to the triennial cycle
Jews who read the Torah according to thetriennial cycle
The Triennial cycle of Torah reading may refer to either
* The historical practice in ancient Israel by which the entire Torah was read in serial fashion over a three-year period, or
* The practice adopted by many Reform, Conservative, Reconstruct ...
of Torah reading read the parashah according to the following schedule:
In ancient parallels
The parashah has parallels in these ancient sources:Genesis chapter 14
Dennis Pardee suggested that the Rephaim cited in and and20
may be related to a name in a 14th-century BCE
Ugarit
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, image =Ugarit Corbel.jpg
, image_size=300
, alt =
, caption = Entrance to the Royal Palace of Ugarit
, map_type = Near East#Syria
, map_alt =
, map_size = 300
, relief=yes
, location = Latakia Governorate, Syria
, region = ...
ic text.
In inner-biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:Genesis chapter 12
reports that Abram's father Terah lived beyond the River Euphrates and served other gods. While reports that Terah took Abram, Lot, and Sarai fromUr of the Chaldees
Ur Kasdim ( he, ''ʾūr Kaśdīm''), commonly translated as Ur of the Chaldeans, is a city mentioned in the Hebrew Bible as the birthplace of the Israelite and Ishmaelite patriarch Abraham. In 1862, Henry Rawlinson identified Ur Kaśdim with ...
to Haran, and subsequently reports God's call to Abram to leave his country and his father's house, reports that God chose Abram and brought him out of Ur of the Chaldees.
God's blessing to Abraham in that "all the families of the earth shall bless themselves by you," is paralleled by God's blessing to Abraham in that "All the nations of the earth shall bless themselves by your descendants," and God's blessing to Jacob in that "All the families of the earth shall bless themselves by you and your descendants," and fulfilled by Balaam's request in to share Israel's fate.
God's promises to Abraham in are reflected in the recollections of of God's blessing of fruitfulness, of of God's promises, and of Psalm
The Book of Psalms ( or ; he, תְּהִלִּים, , lit. "praises"), also known as the Psalms, or the Psalter, is the first book of the ("Writings"), the third section of the Tanakh, and a book of the Old Testament. The title is derived f ...
, , , 1 Chronicles
The Book of Chronicles ( he, דִּבְרֵי־הַיָּמִים ) is a book in the Hebrew Bible, found as two books (1–2 Chronicles) in the Christian Old Testament. Chronicles is the final book of the Hebrew Bible, concluding the third sect ...
, and of God's promise of the land.
Genesis chapter 15
In , God promised that Abraham's descendants would be as numerous as the stars of heaven. Similarly, in , God promised that Abraham's descendants would be as numerous as the stars of heaven and the sands on the seashore. In , God reminded Isaac that God had promised Abraham that God would make his heirs as numerous as the stars. In , Jacob reminded God that God had promised that Jacob's descendants would be as numerous as the sands. In , Moses reminded God that God had promised to make the Patriarch's descendants as numerous as the stars. In , Moses reported that God had multiplied the Israelites until they were then as numerous as the stars. In , Moses reported that God had made the Israelites as numerous as the stars. And foretold that the Israelites would be reduced in number after having been as numerous as the stars. But tells that God "counts the number of the stars," and reports that God "brings out their host by number" and "calls them all by name." While required a new mother to bring a burnt-offering and a sin-offering, and characterize childlessness as a misfortune; , , and make clear that having children is a blessing from God; and and threaten childlessness as a punishment.Genesis chapter 17
In , God told Abraham, "Walk in My ways and be blameless."Moses
Moses hbo, מֹשֶׁה, Mōše; also known as Moshe or Moshe Rabbeinu ( Mishnaic Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּינוּ, ); syr, ܡܘܫܐ, Mūše; ar, موسى, Mūsā; grc, Mωϋσῆς, Mōÿsēs () is considered the most important pr ...
echoed the exhortation to "walk in God's ways" as a recurring theme in ; ; ; ; ; ; ; and . The wording of , "Walk in My ways and be blameless (, ''tamim'')," in turn echoes that of , "Noah was a righteous (, ''tamim'') man; Noah walked with God."
In early nonrabbinic interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these early nonrabbinic sources:Genesis chapter 12
The second century BCEBook of Jubilees
The Book of Jubilees, sometimes called Lesser Genesis (Leptogenesis), is an ancient Jewish religious work of 50 chapters (1,341 verses), considered canonical by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church as well as Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews), where it is ...
reported that Abraham endured ten trials and was found faithful and patient in spirit. Jubilees listed eight of the trials: (1) leaving his country, (2) the famine, (3) the wealth of kings, (4) his wife taken from him, (5) circumcision, (6) Hagar and Ishmael driven away, (7) the binding of Isaac, and (8) buying the land to bury Sarah.
Philo
Philo of Alexandria (; grc, Φίλων, Phílōn; he, יְדִידְיָה, Yəḏīḏyāh (Jedediah); ), also called Philo Judaeus, was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt.
Philo's de ...
interpreted Abram's migration allegorically as the story of a soul devoted to virtue and searching for God.
The Apocalypse of Abraham told that Abraham argued to his father Terah that fire is more worthy of honor than idols, because its flames mock perishable things. Even more worthy of honor was water, because it conquers the fire and satisfies the earth. He called the earth more worthy of honor, because it overpowers the nature of the water. He called the sun more worthy of honor, because its rays illumine the whole world. But even the sun Abraham did not call god, because at night and by clouds it is obscured. Nor did Abraham call the moon or the stars god, because they also in their season obscure their light. Abraham argued to his father that they should worship the God who made everything, including the heavens, the sun, the moon, the stars, and the earth. And while Abraham thus spoke to his father in the court of his house, the voice of God came down from heaven in a fiery cloudburst, crying to Abraham to leave his father's house so that he would not also die in his father's sins.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in theserabbi
A rabbi () is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism. One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi – known as '' semikha'' – following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud. The basic form o ...
nic sources from the era of the Mishnah
The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Tor ...
and the Talmud
The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law ('' halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the ce ...
:
Genesis chapter 12
The Mishnah taught that Abraham suffered ten trials and withstood them all, demonstrating how great Abraham's love was for God.Mishnah Avot 5:3(Land of Israel, circa 200 CE), in, e.g.,
Jacob Neusner
Jacob Neusner (July 28, 1932 – October 8, 2016) was an American academic scholar of Judaism. He was named as one of the most published authors in history, having written or edited more than 900 books.
Life and career
Neusner was born in Hartfor ...
, translator, ''The Mishnah: A New Translation'' (New Haven
New Haven is a city in the U.S. state of Connecticut. It is located on New Haven Harbor on the northern shore of Long Island Sound in New Haven County, Connecticut and is part of the New York City metropolitan area. With a population of 134,023 ...
: Yale University Press
Yale University Press is the university press of Yale University. It was founded in 1908 by George Parmly Day, and became an official department of Yale University in 1961, but it remains financially and operationally autonomous.
, Yale Univers ...
, 1988), page 685; see also the discussion of Jubilees 17:16–18; 19:2–9 in "In early nonrabbinic interpretation" above. The Avot of Rabbi Natan
Avot de-Rabbi Nathan (), usually printed together with the minor tractates of the Talmud, is a Jewish aggadic work probably compiled in the geonic era (c.700–900 CE). Although Avot de-Rabbi Nathan is the first and longest of the " minor tractat ...
taught that two trials were when God asked him to leave Haran, two were with his two sons, two were with his two wives, one was in the wars of the Kings, one was at the covenant between the pieces, one was in Ur of the Chaldees (where, according to a tradition, he was thrown into a furnace and came out unharmed), and one was the covenant of circumcision. The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer counted as the ten trials: (1) when Abram was a child and all the magnates of the kingdom and the magicians sought to kill him (see below), (2) when he was put into prison for ten years and cast into the furnace of fire, (3) his migration from his father's house and from the land of his birth, (4) the famine, (5) when Sarah his wife was taken to be Pharaoh's wife, (6) when the kings came to kill him, (7) when (in the words of ) "the word of the Lord came to Abram in a vision," (8) when Abram was 99 years old and God asked him to circumcise himself, (9) when Sarah asked Abraham (in the words of ) to "Cast out this bondwoman and her son," and (10) the binding of Isaac.
The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer told that the first trial was when Abram was born, and all the magnates of the kingdom and the magicians sought to kill him. Abram's family hid Abram in a cave for 13 years, during which he never saw the sun or moon. After 13 years, Abram came out speaking the holy language, Hebrew, and he despised idols and trusted in God, saying (in the words of ): "Blessed is the man who trusts in You." In the second trial, Abram was put in prison for ten years—three years in Kuthi and seven years in Budri. After 10 years, they brought him out and cast him into the furnace of fire, and God delivered him from the furnace, as says, "And He said to him, 'I am the Lord who brought you out of the furnace of the Chaldees." Similarly, reports, "You are the Lord the God, who did choose Abram, and brought him forth out of the furnace of the Chaldees." The third trial was Abram's migration from his father's house and from the land of his birth. God brought him to Haran, and there his father Terah and Athrai his mother died. The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer taught that migration is harder for a human than for any other creature. And tells of his migration when it says, "Now the Lord said to Abram, 'Get out.'"
Rabbi Hiyya
Hiyya, or Hiyya the Great, (ca. 180–230 CE) (Hebrew: רבי חייא, or רבי חייא הגדול) was a Jewish sage in the Land of Israel during the transitional generation between the Tannaic and Amoraic eras (1st Amora generation). Activ ...
said that Abram's father Terah manufactured idols (as implies), and once Terah went away and left Abram to mind the store. A man came and asked to buy an idol. Abram asked the man how old he was. The man replied that he was 50 years old. Abram exclaimed that it was a shame that a man of 50 would worship a day-old object. The man became embarrassed and left. On another occasion, a woman came with a plate of flour and asked Abram to offer it to the idols. Abram took a stick, broke the idols, and put the stick in the largest idol's hand. When Terah returned, he demanded that Abram explain what he had done. Abram told Terah that the idols fought among themselves to be fed first, and the largest broke the others with the stick. Terah asked Abram why he mocked him, for the idols had no consciousness. Abram replied by asking Terah to listen to what he had just said. Thereupon Terah seized Abram and delivered him to Nimrod
Nimrod (; ; arc, ܢܡܪܘܕ; ar, نُمْرُود, Numrūd) is a biblical figure mentioned in the Book of Genesis and Books of Chronicles. The son of Cush and therefore a great-grandson of Noah, Nimrod was described as a king in the land of ...
, king of Shinar
Shinar (; Hebrew , Septuagint ) is the name for the southern region of Mesopotamia used by the Hebrew Bible.
Etymology
Hebrew שנער ''Šinʿar'' is equivalent to the Egyptian ''Sngr'' and Hittite ''Šanḫar(a)'', all referring to southern M ...
. Nimrod proposed that they worship the fire. Abram replied that they should rather worship water, which extinguishes fire. Nimrod agreed to worship water. Abram replied that they should rather worship clouds, which bear the water. Nimrod agreed to worship the clouds. Abram replied that they should rather worship the winds, which disperse the clouds. Nimrod agreed to worship the wind. Abram replied that they should rather worship human beings, who withstand the wind. Nimrod then accused Abram of just bandying words and decreed that they would worship nothing but fire. Nimrod cast Abram into the fire, challenging Abram's God to save him from it. Haran was standing there undecided. Haran thought to himself that if Abram survived, then Haran would say that he was of Abram's faith, but if Nimrod was victorious, then Haran would say that he was on Nimrod's side. When Abram descended into the fiery furnace, God saved him. Nimrod then asked Haran whose belief he shared, and Haran replied that he shared Abram's faith. Thereupon Nimrod cast Haran into the fire, and he died in his father's presence, as reports, "And Haran died in the presence of his father Terah."
Rabbi Aha said in the name of Rabbi Samuel ben Nahman
Samuel ben Nahman ( he, שמואל בן נחמן) or Samuel arNahmani ( he, שמואל �רנחמני) was a rabbi of the Talmud, known as an amora, who lived in the Land of Israel from the beginning of the 3rd century until the beginning of t ...
(or others say Rabbi Alexandri's name) in Rabbi Nathan's name that Abraham knew and observed even the laws of the courtyard eruv
An eruv (; he, עירוב, , also transliterated as eiruv or erub, plural: eruvin or eruvim) is a ritual halakhic enclosure made for the purpose of allowing activities which are normally prohibited on Shabbat (due to the prohibition of '' h ...
. Rabbi Phinehas (and others say Rabbi Helkiah and Rabbi Simon) said in the name of Rabbi Samuel that Abraham knew even the new name that God will one day give to Jerusalem, as says, "At that time they shall call Jerusalem 'The Throne of God.'" Rabbi Berekiah
R. Berekiah (or R. Berekhyah; he, רבי ברכיה, read as ''Rabbi Berekhyah'') was an '' Amora'' of the Land of Israel, of the fourth generation of the Amora era. He is known for his work on the Aggadah
Aggadah ( he, ''ʾAggāḏā'' or ' ...
, Rabbi Hiyya, and the Rabbis of Babylonia taught in Rabbi Judah's name that a day does not pass in which God does not teach a new law in the heavenly Court. For as says, "Hear attentively the noise of His voice, and the meditation that goes out of His mouth." And meditation refers to nothing but Torah, as says, "You shall meditate therein day and night." And Abraham knew them all.
Rabbi Isaac compared Abram's thinking to that of a man who was travelling from place to place when he saw a building in flames. He wondered whether it was possible that the building could lack a person to look after it. At that moment, the owner of the building appeared and said that he owned the building. Similarly, Abram questioned whether it was conceivable that the world could exist without a Guide to look after it. At that moment, God told Abram that God is the Guide, the Sovereign of the Universe. At that moment, in the words of , "The Lord said to Abraham: 'Get out of your country.'"
A Midrash
''Midrash'' (;"midrash"
''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''. he, מִדְרָשׁ; ...
taught that when God spoke to Abram in , it was the first time that God had spoken to a person since ''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''. he, מִדְרָשׁ; ...
Noah
Noah ''Nukh''; am, ኖህ, ''Noḥ''; ar, نُوح '; grc, Νῶε ''Nôe'' () is the tenth and last of the pre-Flood patriarchs in the traditions of Abrahamic religions. His story appears in the Hebrew Bible (Book of Genesis, chapters 5� ...
. Thus, the Midrash said that Ecclesiastes
Ecclesiastes (; hbo, קֹהֶלֶת, Qōheleṯ, grc, Ἐκκλησιαστής, Ekklēsiastēs) is one of the Ketuvim ("Writings") of the Hebrew Bible and part of the Wisdom literature of the Christian Old Testament. The title commonly us ...
, "Wisdom makes a wise man stronger than ten rulers," refers to Abraham, whom wisdom made stronger than the ten generations from Noah to Abraham. For out of all of them, God spoke to Abraham alone.
The Gemara
The Gemara (also transliterated Gemarah, or in Yiddish Gemo(r)re; from Aramaic , from the Semitic root ג-מ-ר ''gamar'', to finish or complete) is the component of the Talmud comprising rabbinical analysis of and commentary on the Mishnah ...
reported that some deduced from that change of place can cancel a person's doom, but another argued that it was the merit of the land of Israel that availed Abraham.
Reading God's command to Abram in to get out of his country along with Song of Songs , "Your ointments have a goodly fragrance," Rabbi Berekiah taught that before God called Abram, Abram resembled a vial of myrrh
Myrrh (; from Semitic, but see '' § Etymology'') is a gum-resin extracted from a number of small, thorny tree species of the genus '' Commiphora''. Myrrh resin has been used throughout history as a perfume, incense and medicine. Myrrh m ...
closed with a tight-fitting lid and lying in a corner, so that its fragrance did not spread. As soon as the vial was taken up, however, its fragrance disseminated. Similarly, God commanded Abraham to travel from place to place, so that his name would become great in the world.
Rabbi Eliezer taught that the five Hebrew letters of the Torah that alone among Hebrew letters have two separate shapes (depending whether they are in the middle or the end of a word)— (Kh, M, N, P, Z)—all relate to the mystery of redemption. With the letter ''kaph
Kaph (also spelled kaf) is the eleventh letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician kāp , Hebrew kāf , Aramaic kāp , Syriac kāp̄ , and Arabic kāf (in abjadi order).
The Phoenician letter gave rise to the Greek kappa (Κ), ...
'' (), God redeemed Abraham from Ur of the Chaldees, as in , God says, "Get you (, ''lekh lekha'') out of your country, and from your kindred . . . to the land that I will show you." With the letter ''mem
Mem (also spelled Meem, Meme, or Mim) is the thirteenth letter of the Semitic abjads, including Hebrew mēm , Aramaic Mem , Syriac mīm ܡ, Arabic mīm and Phoenician mēm . Its sound value is .
The Phoenician letter gave rise to the Greek ...
'' (), Isaac was redeemed from the land of the Philistines
The Philistines ( he, פְּלִשְׁתִּים, Pəlīštīm; Koine Greek ( LXX): Φυλιστιείμ, romanized: ''Phulistieím'') were an ancient people who lived on the south coast of Canaan from the 12th century BC until 604 BC, whe ...
, as in , the Philistine king Abimelech
Abimelech (also spelled Abimelek or Avimelech; ) was the generic name given to all Philistine kings in the Hebrew Bible from the time of Abraham through King David. In the Book of Judges, Abimelech, son of Gideon, of the Tribe of Manasseh, ...
told Isaac, "Go from us: for you are much mightier (, ''mimenu m'od'') than we." With the letter ''nun
A nun is a woman who vows to dedicate her life to religious service, typically living under vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience in the enclosure of a monastery or convent.''The Oxford English Dictionary'', vol. X, page 599. The term is o ...
'' (), Jacob
Jacob (; ; ar, يَعْقُوب, Yaʿqūb; gr, Ἰακώβ, Iakṓb), later given the name Israel, is regarded as a patriarch of the Israelites and is an important figure in Abrahamic religions, such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. ...
was redeemed from the hand of Esau, as in , Jacob prayed, "Deliver me, I pray (, ''hazileini na''), from the hand of my brother, from the hand of Esau." With the letter '' pe'' (), God redeemed Israel from Egypt, as in , God told Moses, "I have surely visited you, (, ''pakod pakadeti'') and (seen) that which is done to you in Egypt, and I have said, I will bring you up out of the affliction of Egypt." With the letter ''tsade
Tsade (also spelled , , , , tzadi, sadhe, tzaddik) is the eighteenth letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician ṣādē , Hebrew ṣādi , Aramaic ṣāḏē , Syriac ṣāḏē ܨ, Ge'ez ṣädäy ጸ, and Arabic . Its oldest phone ...
'' (), God will redeem Israel from the oppression of the kingdoms, and God will say to Israel, I have caused a branch to spring forth for you, as says, "Behold, the man whose name is the Branch (, ''zemach''); and he shall grow up (, ''yizmach'') out of his place, and he shall build the temple of the Lord." These letters were delivered to Abraham. Abraham delivered them to Isaac, Isaac delivered them to Jacob, Jacob delivered the mystery of Redemption to Joseph, and Joseph delivered the secret of Redemption to his brothers, as in , Joseph told his brothers, "God will surely visit (, ''pakod yifkod'') you." Jacob's son Asher delivered the mystery of the Redemption to his daughter Serah. When Moses and Aaron
According to Abrahamic religions, Aaron ''′aharon'', ar, هارون, Hārūn, Greek (Septuagint): Ἀαρών; often called Aaron the priest ()., group="note" ( or ; ''’Ahărōn'') was a prophet, a high priest, and the elder brother of ...
came to the elders of Israel and performed signs in their sight, the elders told Serah. She told them that there is no reality in signs. The elders told her that Moses said, "God will surely visit (, ''pakod yifkod'') you" (as in ). Serah told the elders that Moses was the one who would redeem Israel from Egypt, for she heard (in the words of ), "I have surely visited (, ''pakod pakadeti'') you." The people immediately believed in God and Moses, as says, "And the people believed, and when they heard that the Lord had visited the children of Israel."
Rabbi Berekiah noted that in , God had already said, "I will bless you," and so asked what God added by then saying, "and you be a blessing." Rabbi Berekiah explained that God was thereby conveying to Abraham that up until that point, God had to bless God's world, but thereafter, God entrusted the ability to bless to Abraham, and Abraham could thenceforth bless whomever he wanted to bless.
Rabbi Nehemiah
Rabbi Nehemiah was a rabbi who lived circa 150 AD (fourth generation of tannaim).
He was one of the great students of Rabbi Akiva, and one of the rabbis who received semicha from R' Judah ben Baba
The Talmud equated R' Nechemiah with Rabbi Ne ...
said that the power of blessing granted to Abraham in was what Abraham gave to Isaac in . But Rabbi Judah and the Rabbis disagreed.
Shimon ben Lakish
Shim‘on ben Lakish ( he, שמעון בן לקיש; arc, שמעון בר לקיש ''Shim‘on bar Lakish'' or ''bar Lakisha''), better known by his nickname Reish Lakish (c. 200 — c. 275), was an amora who lived in the Roman province of Juda ...
(Resh Lakish) taught that God's blessing of Abraham in , "And I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you, and I will make your name great, and you will be a blessing," is fulfilled in the ''Amidah
The ''Amidah Amuhduh'' ( he, תפילת העמידה, ''Tefilat HaAmidah'', 'The Standing Prayer'), also called the ''Shemoneh Esreh'' ( 'eighteen'), is the central prayer of the Jewish liturgy. Observant Jews recite the ''Amidah'' at each ...
'' prayer. "And I will make of you a great nation" is fulfilled in the opening of the first blessing of the ''Amidah'' prayer when Jews say, "God of Abraham." "And I will bless you" is fulfilled when Jews say, "God of Isaac," as it is a blessing for a father when the name of his son is eternalized. "And I will make your name great" is fulfilled when they say, "God of Jacob." One might have thought that Jews should conclude the first blessing of the ''Amidah'' prayer with the names of all the Patriarchs, so says, "And you will be a blessing," which implies that since concludes with Abraham, Jews conclude the blessing with Abraham, and not with all of the Patriarchs, and this is why the first blessing of the ''Amidah'' prayer ends, "Shield of Abraham."
Rav Nahman bar Isaac deduced from God's promise to Abraham in , "And I will bless them that bless you," that since the priests
A priest is a religious leader authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in particu ...
bless Abraham's descendants with the Priestly Blessing
The Priestly Blessing or priestly benediction, ( he, ברכת כהנים; translit. ''birkat kohanim''), also known in rabbinic literature as raising of the hands (Hebrew ''nesiat kapayim'') or rising to the platform (Hebrew ''aliyah ledukhan'') ...
of , God therefore blesses the priests.
Rabbi Eleazar interpreted the words, "And in you shall the families of the earth be blessed (, ''venivrechu'')" in to teach that God told Abram that God had two good shoots to graft (''lihavrich'') onto Abram's family tree: Ruth the Moab
Moab ''Mōáb''; Assyrian: 𒈬𒀪𒁀𒀀𒀀 ''Mu'abâ'', 𒈠𒀪𒁀𒀀𒀀
''Ma'bâ'', 𒈠𒀪𒀊 ''Ma'ab''; Egyptian: 𓈗𓇋𓃀𓅱𓈉 ''Mū'ībū'', name=, group= () is the name of an ancient Levantine kingdom whose territ ...
ite (whom reports was the ancestor of David
David (; , "beloved one") (traditional spelling), , ''Dāwūd''; grc-koi, Δαυΐδ, Dauíd; la, Davidus, David; gez , ዳዊት, ''Dawit''; xcl, Դաւիթ, ''Dawitʿ''; cu, Давíдъ, ''Davidŭ''; possibly meaning "beloved one". w ...
) and Naamah the Ammon
Ammon (Ammonite: 𐤏𐤌𐤍 ''ʻAmān''; he, עַמּוֹן ''ʻAmmōn''; ar, عمّون, ʻAmmūn) was an ancient Semitic-speaking nation occupying the east of the Jordan River, between the torrent valleys of Arnon and Jabbok, in ...
ite (whom 1 Kings
The Book of Kings (, '' Sēfer Məlāḵīm'') is a book in the Hebrew Bible, found as two books (1–2 Kings) in the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. It concludes the Deuteronomistic history, a history of Israel also including the book ...
reports was the mother of Rehoboam
Rehoboam (; , ; , ; la, Roboam, ) was, according to the Hebrew Bible, the last monarch of the United Kingdom of Israel and the first monarch of the Kingdom of Judah after the former's split. He was a son of and the successor to Solomon and a g ...
and thus the ancestor of good kings like Hezekiah
Hezekiah (; hbo, , Ḥīzqīyyahū), or Ezekias); grc, Ἐζεκίας 'Ezekías; la, Ezechias; also transliterated as or ; meaning "Yahweh, Yah shall strengthen" (born , sole ruler ), was the son of Ahaz and the 13th king of Kingdom of Jud ...
). And Rabbi Eleazar interpreted the words, "All the families of the earth," in to teach that even the other families who live on the earth are blessed only for Israel's sake.
Rav Judah deduced from that to refuse to say grace when given a cup to bless will shorten a person's life. And Rabbi Joshua ben Levi deduced from that every kohen
Kohen ( he, , ''kōhēn'', , "priest", pl. , ''kōhănīm'', , "priests") is the Hebrew word for " priest", used in reference to the Aaronic priesthood, also called Aaronites or Aaronides. Levitical priests or ''kohanim'' are traditionally ...
who pronounces the benediction is himself blessed.
Resh Lakish deduced from that the Torah regards people who teach Torah to their neighbor's children as though they had fashioned them.
Similarly, Rabbi Leazar in the name of Rabbi Jose ben Zimra observed that if all the nations assembled to create one insect, they could not bring it to life, yet says, "the souls whom they had made in Haran." Rabbi Leazar in the name of Rabbi Jose ben Zimra interpreted the words "the souls whom they had made" to refer to the proselytes whom Abram and Sarai had converted. The Midrash asked why then did not simply say, "whom they had converted," and instead says, "whom they had made." The Midrash answered that thus teaches that one who brings a nonbeliever near to God is like one who created a life. Noting that does not say, "whom he had made," but instead says "whom they had made," Rabbi Hunia taught that Abraham converted the men, and Sarah converted the women.
Rabbi Haggai said in Rabbi Isaac's name that all of the Matriarchs were prophet
In religion, a prophet or prophetess is an individual who is regarded as being in contact with a divine being and is said to speak on behalf of that being, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings from the ...
s.
The Tanna debe Eliyyahu taught that the world is destined to exist for 6,000 years. The first 2,000 years were to be void, the next 2,000 years were the period of the Torah, and the last 2,000 years are the period of the Messiah
In Abrahamic religions, a messiah or messias (; ,
; ,
; ) is a saviour or liberator of a group of people. The concepts of '' mashiach'', messianism, and of a Messianic Age originated in Judaism, and in the Hebrew Bible, in which a ''mashiach ...
. And the Gemara taught that the 2,000 years of the Torah began when, as reports, Abraham and Sarah had gotten souls in Haran, when by tradition Abraham was 52 years old.
The Mishnah equated the terebinth of Moreh to which Abram journeyed in with the terebinths of Moreh to which Moses
Moses hbo, מֹשֶׁה, Mōše; also known as Moshe or Moshe Rabbeinu ( Mishnaic Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּינוּ, ); syr, ܡܘܫܐ, Mūše; ar, موسى, Mūsā; grc, Mωϋσῆς, Mōÿsēs () is considered the most important pr ...
directed the Israelites
The Israelites (; , , ) were a group of Semitic-speaking tribes in the ancient Near East who, during the Iron Age, inhabited a part of Canaan.
The earliest recorded evidence of a people by the name of Israel appears in the Merneptah Stele o ...
to journey in to hear the blessings and curses at Mount Gerizim
Mount Gerizim (; Samaritan Hebrew: ''ʾĀ̊rgā̊rīzēm''; Hebrew: ''Har Gərīzīm''; ar, جَبَل جَرِزِيم ''Jabal Jarizīm'' or جَبَلُ ٱلطُّورِ ''Jabal at-Ṭūr'') is one of two mountains in the immediate vicinit ...
and Mount Ebal, and the Gemara equated both with Shechem.
Rabbi Elazar said that one should always anticipate misfortune with prayer; for it was only by virtue of Abram's prayer between Bethel and Ai reported in that Israel's troops survived at the Battle of Ai in Joshua
Joshua () or Yehoshua ( ''Yəhōšuaʿ'', Tiberian: ''Yŏhōšuaʿ,'' lit. 'Yahweh is salvation') ''Yēšūaʿ''; syr, ܝܫܘܥ ܒܪ ܢܘܢ ''Yəšūʿ bar Nōn''; el, Ἰησοῦς, ar , يُوشَعُ ٱبْنُ نُونٍ '' Yūšaʿ ...
's days.
The Rabbis deduced from that when there is a famine in one's land, one should emigrate.
Rabbi Phinehas said in Rabbi Hoshaya's name that God told Abraham to go forth and set a path for his children, for everything written in connection with Abraham is written in connection with his children:Genesis Rabbah 40:6in, e.g., Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, translators, ''Midrash Rabbah: Genesis'', volume 1, pages 330–31. Similarly, Rabbi Joshua of Sikhnin taught that God gave Abraham a sign: Everything that happened to him would also happen to his children:
Rav
''Rav'' (or ''Rab,'' Modern Hebrew: ) is the Hebrew generic term for a person who teaches Torah; a Jewish spiritual guide; or a rabbi. For example, Pirkei Avot (1:6) states that:
The term ''rav'' is also Hebrew for ''rabbi''. (For a more nuan ...
deduced from that Abram had not even looked at his own wife before that point.
Reading the words, "And it came to pass, that, when Abram came into Egypt," in , a Midrash asked why the text at that point mentioned Abraham but not Sarai. The Midrash taught that Abram had put Sarai in a box and locked her in. The Midrash told that when Abram came to the Egyptian customs house, the customs officer demanded that Abram pay the custom duty on the box and its contents, and Abram agreed to pay. The customs officer proposed that Abram must have been carrying garments in the box, and Abram agreed to pay the duty for garments. The customs officer then proposed that Abram must have been carrying silks in the box, and Abram agreed to pay the duty for silks. The customs officer then proposed that Abram must have been carrying precious stones in the box, and Abram agreed to pay the duty for precious stones. But then the customs officer insisted that Abram open the box so that the customs officers could see what it contained. As soon as Abram opened the box, Sarai's beauty illuminated the land of Egypt.
Rabbi Azariah and Rabbi Jonathan
Rabbi Jonathan (Hebrew: רבי יונתן, ''Rabi Yonatan'') was a '' tanna'' of the 2nd century and schoolfellow of R. Josiah, apart from whom he is rarely quoted.
Jonathan is generally so cited within
further designation; but there is ample re ...
in Rabbi Isaac's name taught that Eve's image was transmitted to the reigning beauties of each generation (setting the standard of beauty). says of David's comforter Abishag
Abishag ( he, אבישג ''Avishag'') was a beautiful young woman of Shunem chosen to be a helper and servant to King David in his old age. Among Abishag's duties was to lie next to David and pass along her body heat and vigor because "they put ...
, "And the damsel was very fair"—, ''yafah ad me'od''—which the Midrash interpreted to mean that she attained to Eve's beauty (as , ''ad me'od'', implies , Adam, and thus Eve). And says, "the Egyptians beheld the woman that she was very fair"—, ''me'od''—which the Midrash interpreted to mean that Sarai was even more beautiful than Eve. Reading the words, "And the princes of Pharaoh saw her, and praised her to Pharaoh," in , Rabbi Johanan told that they tried to outbid each other for the right to enter Pharaoh's palace with Sarai. One prince said that he would give a hundred dinar
The dinar () is the principal currency unit in several countries near the Mediterranean Sea, and its historical use is even more widespread.
The modern dinar's historical antecedents are the gold dinar and the silver dirham, the main coin ...
s for the right to enter the palace with Sarai, whereupon another bid two hundred dinars.
Rabbi Helbo deduced from that a man must always observe the honor due to his wife, because blessings rest on a man's home only on account of her.
Rabbi Samuel bar Nahmani said in the name of Rabbi Johanan that leprosy resulted from seven things: slander, bloodshed, vain oath, incest, arrogance, robbery, and envy. The Gemara cited God's striking Pharaoh with plagues in to show that incest had led to leprosy.
Genesis chapter 13
ABaraita
''Baraita'' ( Aramaic: "external" or "outside"; pl. ''Barayata'' or ''Baraitot''; also Baraitha, Beraita; Ashkenazi: Beraisa) designates a tradition in the Jewish oral law not incorporated in the Mishnah. ''Baraita'' thus refers to teachings ...
deduced from the words, "like the garden of the Lord, like the land of Egypt," in that among all the nations, there was none more fertile than Egypt. And the Baraita taught that there was no more fertile spot in Egypt than Zoan, where kings lived, for says of Pharaoh
Pharaoh (, ; Egyptian: '' pr ꜥꜣ''; cop, , Pǝrro; Biblical Hebrew: ''Parʿō'') is the vernacular term often used by modern authors for the kings of ancient Egypt who ruled as monarchs from the First Dynasty (c. 3150 BC) until th ...
, "his princes are at Zoan." And in all of Israel, there was no more rocky ground than that at Hebron, which is why the Patriarchs
The highest-ranking bishops in Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, the Catholic Church (above major archbishop and primate), the Hussite Church, Church of the East, and some Independent Catholic Churches are termed patriarchs (and in certa ...
buried their dead there, as reported in . But rocky Hebron was still seven times as fertile as lush Zoan, as the Baraita interpreted the words "and Hebron was built seven years before Zoan in Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning the North Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via a land bridg ...
" in to mean that Hebron was seven times as fertile as Zoan. The Baraita rejected the plain meaning of "built," reasoning that Ham would not build a house for his younger son Canaan
Canaan (; Phoenician: 𐤊𐤍𐤏𐤍 – ; he, כְּנַעַן – , in pausa – ; grc-bib, Χανααν – ;The current scholarly edition of the Greek Old Testament spells the word without any accents, cf. Septuaginta : id est Vetus T ...
(in whose land was Hebron) before he built one for his elder son Mizraim (in whose land was Zoan), and lists (presumably in order of birth) "the sons of Ham: Cush, and Mizraim, and Put, and Canaan."
Rabbi Issi taught that there was no city in the plain better than Sodom, for Lot had searched through all the cities of the plain and found none like Sodom. Thus the people of Sodom were the best of all, yet as reports, "the men of Sodom were wicked and sinners." They were "wicked" to each other, "sinners" in adultery, "against the Lord" in idolatry, and "exceedingly" engaged in bloodshed.
The Mishnah deduced from that the men of Sodom would have no place in the world to come.
Genesis chapter 14
Rabbi Levi, or some say Rabbi Jonathan, said that a tradition handed down from the Men of theGreat Assembly
According to Jewish tradition the Men of the Great Assembly ( he, כְּנֶסֶת הַגְּדוֹלָה) or Anshei Knesset HaGedolah (, "The Men of the Great Assembly"), also known as the Great Synagogue, or ''Synod'', was an assembly of 120 s ...
taught that wherever the Bible employs the term "and it was" or "and it came to pass" (, ''va-yehi''), as it does in , it indicates misfortune, as one can read ''wa-yehi'' as ''wai'', ''hi'', "woe, sorrow." Thus the words, "And it came to pass in those days of Amraphel, Arioch, Kenderlaomer, Tidal, Shemeber, Shinab, Backbrai, and Lama the kings of Shinar, Ellasar, Elam, Goiim, Zeboiim, Admah, Bela, and Lasha" in , are followed by the words, "they made war with Bera, Birsta, Nianhazel, and Melchizedek the kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, Zoar, and Salem" in . And the Gemara also cited the instances of followed by ; followed by ; followed by the rest of ; followed by ; 1 Samuel
The Book of Samuel (, ''Sefer Shmuel'') is a book in the Hebrew Bible, found as two books (1–2 Samuel) in the Old Testament. The book is part of the narrative history of Ancient Israel called the Deuteronomistic history, a series of books ( Jo ...
followed by ; followed by ; close after ; followed by ; followed by the rest of ; and followed by Haman
Haman ( ; also known as Haman the Agagite or Haman the evil) is the main antagonist in the Book of Esther, who according to the Hebrew Bible was an official in the court of the Persian empire under King Ahasuerus, commonly identified as Xerxes I ...
. But the Gemara also cited as counterexamples the words, "And there was evening and there was morning one day," in , as well as , and . So Rav Ashi
Rav Ashi ( he, רב אשי) ("Rabbi Ashi") (352–427) was a Babylonian Jewish rabbi, of the sixth generation of amoraim. He reestablished the Academy at Sura and was the first editor of the Babylonian Talmud.
Biography
According to a trad ...
replied that ''wa-yehi'' sometimes presages misfortune, and sometimes it does not, but the expression "and it came to pass in the days of" always presages misfortune. And for that proposition, the Gemara cited , , , and .
Rav and Samuel
Samuel ''Šəmūʾēl'', Tiberian: ''Šămūʾēl''; ar, شموئيل or صموئيل '; el, Σαμουήλ ''Samouḗl''; la, Samūēl is a figure who, in the narratives of the Hebrew Bible, plays a key role in the transition from the bib ...
equated the Amraphel of with the Nimrod whom describes as "a mighty warrior on the earth," but the two differed over which was his real name. One held that his name was actually Nimrod, and calls him Amraphel because he ordered Abram to be cast into a burning furnace (and thus the name Amraphel reflects the words for "he said" (''amar'') and "he cast" (''hipil'')). But the other held that his name was actually Amraphel, and calls him Nimrod because he led the world in rebellion against God (and thus the name Nimrod reflects the word for "he led in rebellion" (''himrid'')).
Rabbi Berekiah and Rabbi Helbo taught in the name of Rabbi Samuel ben Nahman that the Valley of Siddim (mentioned in in connection with the battle between the four kings and the five kings) was called the Valley of Shaveh (which means "as one") because there all the peoples of the world agreed as one, felled cedars, erected a large dais for Abraham, set him on top, and praised him, saying (in the words of , "Hear us, my lord: You are a prince of God among us." They told Abraham that he was king over them and a god to them. But Abraham replied that the world did not lack its King, and the world did not lack its God.
A Midrash taught that there was not a mighty man in the world more difficult to overcome than Og, as says, "only Og king of Bashan
Bashan (; he, הַבָּשָׁן, translit=ha-Bashan; la, Basan or ''Basanitis'') is the ancient, biblical name used for the northernmost region of the Transjordan during the Iron Age. It is situated in modern-day Syria. Its western part, now ...
remained of the remnant of the Rephaim." The Midrash told that Og had been the only survivor of the strong men whom Amraphel and his colleagues had slain, as may be inferred from , which reports that Amraphel "smote the Rephaim in Ashteroth-karnaim
Ashteroth Karnaim ( he, ''ʿAštərōṯ Qarnayīm''), also rendered as Ashtaroth Karnaim, was a city in the land of Bashan east of the Jordan River.
A distinction is to be made between two neighbouring cities: Ashtaroth, and northeast of it Ka ...
," and one may read to indicate that Og lived near Ashteroth. The Midrash taught that Og was the refuse among the Rephaim, like a hard olive that escapes being mashed in the olive press. The Midrash inferred this from , which reports that "there came one who had escaped, and told Abram the Hebrew," and the Midrash identified the man who had escaped as Og, as describes him as a remnant, saying, "only Og king of Bashan remained of the remnant of the Rephaim." The Midrash taught that Og intended that Abram should go out and be killed. God rewarded Og for delivering the message by allowing him to live all the years from Abraham to Moses
Moses hbo, מֹשֶׁה, Mōše; also known as Moshe or Moshe Rabbeinu ( Mishnaic Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּינוּ, ); syr, ܡܘܫܐ, Mūše; ar, موسى, Mūsā; grc, Mωϋσῆς, Mōÿsēs () is considered the most important pr ...
, but God collected Og's debt to God for his evil intention toward Abraham by causing Og to fall by the hand of Abraham's descendants. On coming to make war with Og, Moses was afraid, thinking that he was only 120 years old, while Og was more than 500 years old, and if Og had not possessed some merit, he would not have lived all those years. So God told Moses (in the words of ), "fear him not; for I have delivered him into your hand," implying that Moses should slay Og with his own hand.
Rabbi Abbahu
Rabbi Abbahu ( he, אבהו) was a Jew and Talmudist of the Talmudic Academies in Syria Palaestina from about 279-320 and is counted a member of the third generation of Amoraim. He is sometimes cited as Rabbi Abbahu of Kisrin (Caesarea).
Biogra ...
said in Rabbi Eleazar's name that "his trained men" in meant Torah scholars, and thus when Abram made them fight to rescue Lot, he brought punishment on himself and his children, who were consequently enslaved in Egyptian for 210 years. But Samuel said that Abram was punished because he questioned whether God would keep God's promise, when in Abram asked God "how shall I know that I shall inherit it?" And Rabbi Johanan said that Abram was punished because he prevented people from entering beneath the wings of the Shekhinah and being saved, when in the king of Sodom said it to Abram, "Give me the persons, and take the goods yourself," and Abram consented to leave the prisoners with the king of Sodom. Rav interpreted the words "And he armed his trained servants, born in his own house" in to mean that Abram equipped them by teaching them the Torah. Samuel read the word ''vayarek'' ("he armed") to mean "bright," and thus interpreted the words "And he armed his trained servants" in to mean that Abram made them bright with gold, that is, rewarded them for accompanying him.Babylonian Talmud Nedarim 32ain, e.g., ''Koren Talmud Bavli: Nedarim''. Commentary by Adin Even-Israel (Steinsaltz), volume 18, page 127. Jerusalem: Koren Publishers, 2015.
Reading the report in that Abram led 318 men, Rabbi Ammi bar Abba said that Abram's servant Eliezer outweighed them all. The Gemara reported that others (employing gematria
Gematria (; he, גמטריא or gimatria , plural or , ''gimatriot'') is the practice of assigning a numerical value to a name, word or phrase according to an alphanumerical cipher. A single word can yield several values depending on the cipher ...
) said that Eliezer alone accompanied Abram to rescue Lot, as the Hebrew letters in Eliezer's name have a numerical value of 318.
Midrash identified the Melchizedek of with Noah's son Shem
Shem (; he, שֵׁם ''Šēm''; ar, سَام, Sām) ''Sḗm''; Ge'ez: ሴም, ''Sēm'' was one of the sons of Noah in the book of Genesis and in the book of Chronicles, and the Quran.
The children of Shem were Elam, Ashur, Arphaxad, Lu ...
. The Rabbis taught that Melchizedek acted as a priest
A priest is a religious leader authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in partic ...
and handed down Adam's robes to Abraham. Rabbi Zechariah said on Rabbi Ishmael
Rabbi Yishmael ben Elisha Nachmani (Hebrew: רבי ישמעאל בן אלישע), often known as Rabbi Yishmael and sometimes given the title "Ba'al HaBaraita" (Hebrew: בעל הברייתא), was a rabbi of the 1st and 2nd centuries (third gener ...
's authority (or others say, it was taught at the school of Rabbi Ishmael) that God intended to continue the priesthood from Shem's descendants, as says, "And he (Melchizedek/Shem) was the priest of the most high God." But then Melchizedek gave precedence in his blessing to Abram over God, and thus God decided to bring forth the priesthood from Abram. As reports, "And he (Melchizedek/Shem) blessed him (Abram), and said: 'Blessed be Abram of God Most High, Maker of heaven and earth; and blessed be God the Most High, who has delivered your enemies into your hand.'" Abram replied to Melchizedek/Shem by questioning whether the blessing of a servant should be given precedence over that of the master. And straightaway, God gave the priesthood to Abram, as says, "The Lord (God) said to my Lord (Abram), Sit at my right hand, until I make your enemies your footstool," which is followed in by, "The Lord has sworn, and will not repent, 'You (Abram) are a priest for ever, after the order (''dibrati'') of Melchizedek,'" meaning, "because of the word (''dibbur'') of Melchizedek." Hence says, "And he (Melchizedek/Shem) was the priest of the most high God," implying that Melchizedek/Shem was a priest, but not his descendants.
Rabbi Isaac the Babylonian said that Melchizedek was born circumcised.Genesis Rabbah 43:6in, e.g., Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, translators, ''Midrash Rabbah: Genesis'', volume 1, pages 355–56. A Midrash taught that Melchizedek called Jerusalem "Salem." The Rabbis said that Melchizedek instructed Abraham in the Torah. Rabbi Eleazar said that Melchizedek's school was one of three places where the Holy Spirit manifested itself. Rabbi Judah said in Rabbi Nehorai's name that Melchizedek's blessing yielded prosperity for Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Ephraim Miksha'ah the disciple of
Rabbi Meir
Rabbi Meir ( he, רַבִּי מֵאִיר) was a Jewish sage who lived in the time of the Mishnah. He was considered one of the greatest of the Tannaim of the fourth generation (139-163). He is the third most frequently mentioned sage in the Mis ...
said in the latter's name that Tamar descended from Melchizedek.
Rabbi Hana bar Bizna citing Rabbi Simeon Hasida (or others say Rabbi Berekiah in the name of Rabbi Isaac) identified Melchizedek as one of the four craftsmen of whom Zechariah
Zechariah most often refers to:
* Zechariah (Hebrew prophet), author of the Book of Zechariah
* Zechariah (New Testament figure), father of John the Baptist
Zechariah or its many variant forms and spellings may also refer to:
People
*Zechariah ...
wrote in . The Gemara taught that David
David (; , "beloved one") (traditional spelling), , ''Dāwūd''; grc-koi, Δαυΐδ, Dauíd; la, Davidus, David; gez , ዳዊት, ''Dawit''; xcl, Դաւիթ, ''Dawitʿ''; cu, Давíдъ, ''Davidŭ''; possibly meaning "beloved one". w ...
wrote the Book of Psalms, including in it the work of the elders, including Melchizedek in .
Genesis chapter 15
According to the Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer, reports Abraham's seventh trial. The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer taught that God was revealed to all the prophets in a vision, but to Abraham God was revealed in a revelation and a vision. tells of the revelation when it says, “And the Lord appeared to him by the oaks of Mamre.” And tells of the vision when it says, “After these things the word of the Lord came to Abram in a vision.” According to the Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer, God told Abraham not to fear, for God would shield Abraham against misfortunes everywhere that he would go, and would give him and his children a good reward, in this world and in the world to come, as says, “Your exceeding great reward.”
The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer identified Abraham's servant Eliezer introduced in with the unnamed steward of Abraham's household in . The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer told that when Abraham left Ur of the Chaldees
Ur Kasdim ( he, ''ʾūr Kaśdīm''), commonly translated as Ur of the Chaldeans, is a city mentioned in the Hebrew Bible as the birthplace of the Israelite and Ishmaelite patriarch Abraham. In 1862, Henry Rawlinson identified Ur Kaśdim with ...
, all the magnates of the kingdom gave him gifts, and Nimrod gave Abraham Nimrod's first-born son Eliezer as a perpetual slave. After Eliezer had dealt kindly with Isaac by securing Rebekah
Rebecca, ; Syriac: , ) from the Hebrew (lit., 'connection'), from Semitic root , 'to tie, couple or join', 'to secure', or 'to snare') () appears in the Hebrew Bible as the wife of Isaac and the mother of Jacob and Esau. According to biblic ...
to be Isaac's wife, he set Eliezer free, and God gave Eliezer his reward in this world by raising him up to become a king—Og, king of Bashan.
The Gemara expounded on the words, "And He brought him outside," in . The Gemara taught that Abram had told God that Abram had employed astrology to see his destiny and had seen that he was not fated to have children. God replied that Abram should go "outside" of his astrological thinking, for the stars do not determine Israel's fate.
The Pesikta de-Rav Kahana taught that Sarah was one of seven barren women about whom says (speaking of God), "He ... makes the barren woman to dwell in her house as a joyful mother of children." The Pesikta de-Rav Kahana also listed Rebekah, Rachel, Leah
Leah ''La'ya;'' from (; ) appears in the Hebrew Bible as one of the two wives of the Biblical patriarch Jacob. Leah was Jacob's first wife, and the older sister of his second (and favored) wife Rachel. She is the mother of Jacob's first son ...
, Manoah
Manoah ( ''Mānoaḥ'') is a figure from the Book of Judges 13:1-23 and 14:2-4 of the Hebrew Bible. His name means "rest".
Family
According to the Bible, Manoah was of the tribe of Dan and lived in the city of Zorah. He married one woman, who ...
's wife, Hannah, and Zion
Zion ( he, צִיּוֹן ''Ṣīyyōn'', LXX , also variously Romanization of Hebrew, transliterated ''Sion'', ''Tzion'', ''Tsion'', ''Tsiyyon'') is a placename in the Hebrew Bible used as a synonym for Jerusalem as well as for the Land of Isra ...
. The Pesikta de-Rav Kahana taught that the words of , "He ... makes the barren woman to dwell in her house," apply, to begin with, to Sarah, for reports that "Sarai was barren." And the words of , "a joyful mother of children," apply to Sarah, as well, for also reports that "Sarah gave children suck."
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael ( arc, מְכִילְתָּא דְּרַבִּי יִשְׁמָעֵאל IPA /məˈχiltɑ/, "a collection of rules of interpretation") is midrash halakha to the Book of Exodus. The Jewish Babylonian Aramaic title ' ...
taught that Abraham inherited both this world and the World to Come
The world to come, age to come, heaven on Earth, and the Kingdom of God are eschatological phrases reflecting the belief that the current world or current age is flawed or cursed and will be replaced in the future by a better world, age, or ...
as a reward for his faith, as says, "And he believed in the Lord."
Resh Lakish taught that Providence punishes bodily those who unjustifiably suspect the innocent. In , Moses said that the Israelites "will not believe me," but God knew that the Israelites would believe. God thus told Moses that the Israelites were believers and descendants of believers, while Moses would ultimately disbelieve. The Gemara explained that reports that "the people believed" and reports that the Israelites' ancestor Abram "believed in the Lord," while reports that Moses "did not believe." Thus, Moses was smitten when in God turned his hand white as snow.
Rabbi Jacob bar Aha said in the name of Rav Assi that Abraham asked God whether God would wipe out Abraham's descendants as God had destroyed the generation of the Flood. Rabbi Jacob bar Aha said in the name of Rav Assi that Abraham's question in , "O Lord God, how shall I know that I shall inherit it?" was part of a larger dialogue. Abraham asked God if Abraham's descendants should sin before God, would God do to them as God did to the generation of the Flood (in ) and the generation of the Dispersion (in Genesis in ). God told Abraham that God would not. Abraham then asked God (as reported in ), "Let me know how I shall inherit it." God answered by instructing Abraham (as reported in ), "Take Me a heifer of three years old, and a she-goat of three years old" (which Abraham was to sacrifice to God). Abraham acknowledged to God that this means of atonement through sacrifice would hold good while a sacrificial shrine remained in being, but Abraham pressed God what would become of his descendants when the Temple would no longer exist. God replied that God had already long ago provided for Abraham's descendants in the Torah the order of the sacrifices, and whenever they read it, God would deem it as if they had offered them before God, and God would grant them pardon for all their iniquities. Rabbi Jacob bar Aha said in the name of Rav Assi that this demonstrated that were it not for the ''Ma'amadot'', groups of lay Israelites who participated in worship as representatives of the public, then heaven and earth could not endure.
Reading , “And he said: ‘O Lord God, whereby shall I know that I shall inherit it?’” Rabbi Hama bar Hanina taught that Abraham was not complaining, but asked God through what merit Abraham would inherit the land. God replied that Abraham and his descendants would merit the land through the atoning sacrifices that God would institute for Abraham's descendants, as indicated by the next verse, in which God said, “Take Me a heifer of three years old . . . .”
Reading , “And He said to him: ‘Take me a heifer of three years old (, ''meshuleshet''), a she-goat of three years old (, ''meshuleshet''), and a ram of three years old (, ''meshulash''),’” a Midrash read , ''meshuleshet'', to mean “three-fold” or “three kinds,” indicating sacrifices for three different purposes. The Midrash deduced that God thus showed Abraham three kinds of bullocks, three kinds of goats, and three kinds of rams that Abraham's descendants would need to sacrifice. The three kinds of bullocks were: (1) the bullock that would require the Israelites to sacrifice on the Day of Atonement (''Yom Kippur
Yom Kippur (; he, יוֹם כִּפּוּר, , , ) is the holiest day in Judaism and Samaritanism. It occurs annually on the 10th of Tishrei, the first month of the Hebrew calendar. Primarily centered on atonement and repentance, the day' ...
''), (2) the bullock that would require the Israelites to bring on account of unwitting transgression of the law, and (3) the heifer whose neck would require the Israelites to break. The three kinds of goats were: (1) the goats that would require the Israelites to sacrifice on festivals
A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, or eid. A festival ...
, (2) the goats that would require the Israelites to sacrifice on the New Moon (''Rosh Chodesh
Rosh Chodesh or Rosh Hodesh ( he, ראש חודש; trans. ''Beginning of the Month''; lit. ''Head of the Month'') is the name for the first day of every month in the Hebrew calendar, marked by the birth of a new moon. It is considered a minor ...
''), and (3) the goat that would require an individual to bring. The three kinds of rams were: (1) the guilt-offering of certain obligation that , for example, would require one who committed a trespass to bring, (2) the guilt-offering of doubt to which one would be liable when in doubt whether one had committed a transgression, and (3) the lamb to be brought by an individual. Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai
Shimon bar Yochai ( Zoharic Aramaic: שמעון בר יוחאי, ''Shim'on bar Yoḥai'') or Shimon ben Yochai ( Mishnaic Hebrew: שמעון בן יוחאי, ''Shim'on ben Yoḥai''), also known by the acronym Rashbi, was a 2nd-century '' tannai ...
said that God showed Abraham all the atoning sacrifices except for the tenth of an ephah of fine meal in . The Rabbis said that God showed Abraham the tenth of an ephah as well, for says “all ''these'' (, ''eleh''),” just as says, “And you shall bring the meal-offering that is made of ''these'' things (, ''me-eleh''),” and the use of “these” in both verses hints that both verses refer to the same thing. And reading , “But the bird divided he not,” the Midrash deduced that God intimated to Abraham that the bird burnt-offering would be divided, but the bird sin-offering (which the dove and young pigeon symbolized) would not be divided.
A Midrash noted the difference in wording between , which says of the Israelites in Goshen that "they got possessions therein," and , which says of the Israelites in Canaan, "When you come into the land of Canaan, which I gave you for a possession." The Midrash read to read, "and they were taken in possession by it." The Midrash thus taught that in the case of Goshen, the land seized the Israelites, so that their bond might be exacted and so as to bring about God's declaration to Abraham in that the Egyptians would afflict the Israelites for 400 years. But the Midrash read to teach the Israelites that if they were worthy, the Land of Israel would be an eternal possession, but if not, they would be banished from it.
The Mishnah pointed to God's announcement to Abram in that his descendants would return from Egyptian slavery to support the proposition that the merits of the father bring about benefits for future generations.
A Midrash taught that , , and call the Euphrates "the Great River" because it encompasses the Land of Israel. The Midrash noted that at the creation of the world, the Euphrates was not designated "great." But it is called "great" because it encompasses the Land of Israel, which calls a "great nation." As a popular saying said, the king's servant is a king, and thus Scripture calls the Euphrates great because of its association with the great nation of Israel.
Genesis chapter 16
Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai deduced from the words, "and she had a handmaid, an Egyptian, whose name was Hagar," in that Hagar was Pharaoh's daughter. Rabbi Simeon taught that when Pharaoh saw what God did on Sarah's behalf, Pharaoh gave his daughter to Sarai, reasoning that it would be better for his daughter to be a handmaid in Sarai's house than a mistress in another house. Rabbi Simeon read the name "Hagar" in to mean "reward" (''agar''), imagining Pharaoh to say, "Here is your reward (''agar'')." A Midrash deduced from Sarai's words in , "Behold now, the Lord has restrained me from bearing; go into my handmaid; it may be that I shall be built up through her," that one who is childless is as one who is demolished. The Rabbi of the Midrash reasoned that only that which is demolished must be "built up." Rabbi Simeon wept that Hagar, the handmaid of Rabbi Simeon's ancestor Abraham's house, was found worthy of meeting an angel on three occasions (including in ), while Rabbi Simeon did not meet an angel even once.Babylonian Talmud Meilah 17bin, e.g., ''Talmud Bavli''. Elucidated by Mendy Wachsman; edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, volume 70, page 17b1. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2004. A Midrash found in support for the proverb that if a person tells you that you have a donkey's ears, do not believe it, but if two tell it to you, order a halter. For Abraham called Hagar Sarai's servant the first time in , saying, "Behold, your maid is in your hand." And then the angel called Hagar Sarai's servant the second time in , saying, "Hagar, Sarai's handmaid." Thus, thereafter in , Hagar acknowledged that she was Sarai's servant, saying, "I flee from the face of my mistress Sarai."Genesis Rabbah 45:7
in, e.g., Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, translators, ''Midrash Rabbah: Genesis'', volume 1, page 385. Similarly, Rava asked Rabbah bar Mari where Scripture supports the saying of the Rabbis that if your neighbor (justifiably) calls you a donkey, you should put a saddle on your back (and not quarrel to convince the neighbor otherwise). Rabbah bar Mari replied that the saying found support in , where first the angel calls Hagar "Sarai's handmaid," and then Hagar acknowledged that she was Sarai's servant, saying, "I flee from the face of my mistress Sarai."
Noting that the words "and an angel of the Lord said to her" occur three times in , a Midrash asked how many angels visited Hagar. Rabbi Hama bar Rabbi Hanina said that five angels visited her, for each time the text mentions "speech," it refers to an angel. The Rabbis said that four angels visited her, as the word "angel" occurs 4 times. Rabbi Hiyya taught that Hagar's encounter with the angels showed how great the difference was between the generations of the Patriarchs and Matriarchs and later generations. Rabbi Hiyya noted that after reports that Manoah and his wife, the parents of Samson
Samson (; , '' he, Šīmšōn, label= none'', "man of the sun") was the last of the judges of the ancient Israelites mentioned in the Book of Judges (chapters 13 to 16) and one of the last leaders who "judged" Israel before the institution o ...
, saw an angel, Manoah exclaimed to his wife in fear (in ), "We shall surely die, because we have seen God." Yet Hagar, a bondmaid, saw five angels and was not afraid. Rabbi Aha taught that a fingernail of the Patriarchs was more valuable than the abdomen of their descendants. Rabbi Isaac interpreted , "She sees the ways of her household," to apply homiletically to teach that all who lived in Abraham's household were seers, so Hagar was accustomed to seeing angels.
Rabbi Simeon wept when he thought that Hagar, the handmaid of Rabbi Simeon's ancestor Sarah, was found worthy of meeting an angel three times (including in ), while Rabbi Simeon did not meet an angel even once.
A Midrash counted , in which the angel told Hagar, "Behold, you are with child ... and you shall call his name Ishmael," among four instances in which Scripture identifies a person's name before birth. Rabbi Isaac also counted the cases of Isaac (in ), Solomon
Solomon (; , ),, ; ar, سُلَيْمَان, ', , ; el, Σολομών, ; la, Salomon also called Jedidiah (Hebrew language, Hebrew: , Modern Hebrew, Modern: , Tiberian Hebrew, Tiberian: ''Yăḏīḏăyāh'', "beloved of Yahweh, Yah"), ...
(in ), and Josiah
Josiah ( or ) or Yoshiyahu; la, Iosias was the 16th king of Judah (–609 BCE) who, according to the Hebrew Bible, instituted major religious reforms by removing official worship of gods other than Yahweh. Josiah is credited by most biblical ...
(in ).
The Gemara taught that if one sees Ishmael in a dream, then God hears that person's prayer (perhaps because the name "Ishmael" derives from "the Lord has heard" in , or perhaps because "God heard" (''yishmah Elohim'', ) Ishmael's voice in ).
Genesis chapter 17
Resh Lakish taught that the words "I am God Almighty (, ''El Shaddai'')" in mean, "I am He Who said to the world: 'Enough! (, ''Dai'').'" Resh Lakish taught that when God created the sea, it went on expanding, until God rebuked it and caused it to dry up, as says, "He rebukes the sea and makes it dry, and dries up all the rivers." Rabbi Judah contrasted God's words to Abraham, "walk before Me," in with the words, "Noah walked with God," in . Rabbi Judah compared it to a king who had two sons, one grown up and the other a child. The king asked the child to walk ''with'' him. But the king asked the adult to walk ''before'' him. Similarly, to Abraham, whose moral strength was great, God said, "Walk before Me." But of Noah, who was feeble, says, "Noah walked with God." Rabbi Nehemiah compared Noah to a king's friend who was plunging about in dark alleys, and when the king saw him sinking in the mud, the king urged his friend to walk with him instead of plunging about. Abraham's case, however, was compared to that of a king who was sinking in dark alleys, and when his friend saw him, the friend shined a light for him through the window. The king then asked his friend to come and shine a light before the king on his way. Thus, God told Abraham that instead of showing a light for God from Mesopotamia, he should come and show one before God in the Land of Israel. Similarly, says, "And he blessed Joseph, and said: The God before whom my fathers Abraham and Isaac did walk . ... " Rabbi Berekiah in Rabbi Johanan's name and Resh Lakish gave two illustrations of this. Rabbi Johanan said: It was as if a shepherd stood and watched his flocks. (Similarly, Abraham and Isaac walked before God and under God's protection.) Resh Lakish said: It was as if a prince walked along while the elders preceded him (as an escort, to make known his coming). (Similarly, Abraham and Isaac walked before God, spreading word of God.) The Midrash taught that in Rabbi Johanan's view: We need God's proximity, while in Resh Lakish's view, God needs us to glorify God (by propagating the knowledge of God's greatness). Similarly, a Midrash read the words "Noah walked with God" in to mean that God supported Noah, so that Noah should not be overwhelmed by the evil behavior of the generation of the Flood. The Midrash compared this to a king whose son went on a mission for his father. The road ahead of him was sunken in mire, and the king supported him so that he would not sink in the mire. However, in the case of Abraham, God said in , "walk before Me," and regarding the Patriarchs, Jacob said in , "The God before whom my fathers Abraham and Isaac walked." For the Patriarchs would try to anticipate the Divine Presence, and would go ahead to do God's will.
Rabbi
A rabbi () is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism. One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi – known as '' semikha'' – following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud. The basic form o ...
taught that notwithstanding all the precepts that Abram fulfilled, God did not call him "perfect" until he circumcised himself, for in , God told Abram, "Walk before me and be perfect. And I will make my covenant between me and you," and in , God explained that God's covenant required that every male be circumcised.
Rav Judah said in Rav's name that when God told Abram in , "Walk before me and be perfect," Abram was seized with trembling, thinking that perhaps there was some shameful flaw in him that needed correcting. But when God added in , "And I will make My covenant between me and you," God set Abram's mind at ease. Rabbi Hoshaiah taught that if one perfects oneself, then good fortune will follow, for says, "Walk before me and be perfect," and shortly thereafter reports Abram's reward for doing so: "And you shall be a father of many nations."
Rabbi Ammi bar Abba employed gematria to interpret the meaning of Abram's name change in from Abram () to Abraham (). According to Rabbi Ammi bar Abba, at first God gave Abram mastery over 243 of his body parts, as the numerical value of the Hebrew letters in Abram is 243. Then God gave Abraham mastery over 248 of his body parts, adding five body parts, as the numerical value of the Hebrew letter '' hei'' () that God added to his name is five. The Gemara explained that as a reward for Abraham's undergoing circumcision, God granted Abraham control over his two eyes, his two ears, and the organ that he circumcised.
The Mishnah notes that transgressing the command of circumcision in is one of 36 transgressions that cause the transgressor to be cut off from his people.
The Gemara read the command of to require an uncircumcised adult man to become circumcised, and the Gemara read the command of to require the father to circumcise his infant child.
Rav Zeira
Rabbi Zeira ( he, רבי זירא), known before his semicha as Rav Zeira ( he, רב זירא) and known in the Jerusalem Talmud as Rabbi Ze'era ( he, רבי זעירא), was a Jewish Talmudist, of the third generation of amoraim, who lived in the ...
counted five kinds of '' orlah'' (things uncircumcised) in the world: (1) uncircumcised ears (as in ), (2) uncircumcised lips (as in ), (3) uncircumcised hearts (as in and ), (4) uncircumcised flesh (as in ), and (5) uncircumcised trees (as in ). Rav Zeira taught that all the nations are uncircumcised in each of the first four ways, and all the house of Israel are uncircumcised in heart, in that their hearts do not allow them to do God's will. And Rav Zeira taught that in the future, God will take away from Israel the uncircumcision of their hearts, and they will not harden their stubborn hearts anymore before their Creator, as says, "And I will take away the stony heart out of your flesh, and I will give you an heart of flesh," and says, "And you shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskin."
Rabbi Hama son of Rabbi Hanina taught that visiting those who have had medical procedures (as Abraham had in ) demonstrates one of God's attributes that humans should emulate. Rabbi Hama son of Rabbi Hanina asked what means in the text, "You shall walk after the Lord your God." How can a human being walk after God, when says, " e Lord your God is a devouring fire"? Rabbi Hama son of Rabbi Hanina explained that the command to walk after God means to walk after the attributes of God. As God clothes the naked—for says, "And the Lord God made for Adam
Adam; el, Ἀδάμ, Adám; la, Adam is the name given in Genesis 1-5 to the first human. Beyond its use as the name of the first man, ''adam'' is also used in the Bible as a pronoun, individually as "a human" and in a collective sense as " ...
and for his wife coats of skin, and clothed them"—so should we also clothe the naked. God visited the sick—for says, "And the Lord appeared to him by the oaks of Mamre" (after Abraham was circumcised in )—so should we also visit the sick. God comforted mourners—for says, "And it came to pass after the death of Abraham, that God blessed Isaac his son"—so should we also comfort mourners. God buried the dead—for says, "And He buried him in the valley"—so should we also bury the dead. Similarly, the Sifre
Sifre ( he, סִפְרֵי; ''siphrēy'', ''Sifre, Sifrei'', also, ''Sifre debe Rab'' or ''Sifre Rabbah'') refers to either of two works of '' Midrash halakha'', or classical Jewish legal biblical exegesis, based on the biblical books of Number ...
on taught that to walk in God's ways means to be (in the words of ) "merciful and gracious."
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in thesemedieval
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
Jewish sources:
Genesis chapters 11–22
In their commentaries tMishnah Avot 5:3
ref name=Avot5:3/> (see "In classical rabbinic interpretation" above),
Rashi
Shlomo Yitzchaki ( he, רבי שלמה יצחקי; la, Salomon Isaacides; french: Salomon de Troyes, 22 February 1040 – 13 July 1105), today generally known by the acronym Rashi (see below), was a medieval French rabbi and author of a compre ...
and Maimonides
Musa ibn Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (); la, Moses Maimonides and also referred to by the acronym Rambam ( he, רמב״ם), was a Sephardic Jewish philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah ...
differed on what 10 trials Abraham faced:
Genesis chapter 13
In his letter to an Obadiah the Proselyte, Maimonides relied on to addressed whether a convert could recite declarations like "God of ''our fathers''." Maimonides wrote that converts may say such declarations in the prescribed order and not change them in the least, and may bless and pray in the same way as every Jew by birth. Maimonides reasoned that Abraham taught the people, brought many under the wings of the Divine Presence, and ordered members of his household after him to keep God's ways forever. As God said of Abraham in , "I have known him to the end that he may command his children and his household after him, that they may keep the way of the Lord, to do righteousness and justice." Ever since then, Maimonides taught, whoever adoptsJudaism
Judaism ( he, ''Yahăḏūṯ'') is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and ethnic religion comprising the collective religious, cultural, and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. It has its roots as an organized religion in th ...
is counted among the disciples of Abraham. They are Abraham's household, and Abraham converted them to righteousness. In the same way that Abraham converted his contemporaries, he converts future generations through the testament that he left behind him. Thus Abraham is the father of his posterity who keep his ways and of all proselytes who adopt Judaism. Therefore, Maimonides counseled converts to pray, "God of our fathers," because Abraham is their father. They should pray, "You who have taken for his own our fathers," for God gave the land to Abraham when in , God said, "Arise, walk through the land in the length of it and in the breadth of it; for I will give to you." Maimonides concluded that there is no difference between converts and born Jews. Both should say the blessing, "Who has chosen us," "Who has given us," "Who have taken us for Your own," and "Who has separated us"; for God has chosen converts and separated them from the nations and given them the Torah. For the Torah has been given to born Jews and proselytes alike, as says, "One ordinance shall be both for you of the congregation, and also for the stranger that sojourns with you, an ordinance forever in your generations; as you are, so shall the stranger be before the Lord." Maimonides counseled converts not to consider their origin as inferior. While born Jews descend from Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, converts derive from God, through whose word the world was created. As Isaiah said in "One shall say, I am the Lord's, and another shall call himself by the name of Jacob."
Genesis chapter 15
Baḥya ibn Paquda said that as God brought humanity into existence, gives us life, and bestows on us bounties, all people are under a universal obligation of service to God and obedience to the rational laws observed by Adam, Enoch, Noah and his descendants. Baḥya taught that if people adhere to these laws for the sake of God's service, then God will bestow on them favors beyond those enjoyed by other people, and give them a great reward in this world and the World to Come, as was the case with Abraham, to whom God said in , "Do not fear, Abraham; I am your shield; your reward is exceedingly great." Baḥya read , "and he believed God, and it was counted to him as a righteousness," to illustrate how one's trusting that God will reward deeds in this world and the World To Come is an essential part of perfect faith in God and is incumbent on the believer.
According to the ''Zohar
The ''Zohar'' ( he, , ''Zōhar'', lit. "Splendor" or "Radiance") is a foundational work in the literature of Jewish mystical thought known as Kabbalah. It is a group of books including commentary on the mystical aspects of the Torah (the five ...
'', Rabbi Abba was once going toward Lod when he met Rabbi Zeira, the son of Rav. Quoting , "And he believed in the Lord, and he counted it to him for righteousness," Rabbi Zeira asked whether it means that God counted it to Abraham, or that Abraham counted it to God. Rabbi Zeira reported that he had heard that it means that God counted it to Abraham, but that interpretation did not satisfy him. Rabbi Abba replied that it is indeed not so. Noting that says, "and he reckoned her" (, ''vayahsh'veha'')" and not "and he reckoned to him (, ''vayahshov lo'')," Rabbi Abba taught that this means that Abraham counted it to God. For says, "And he brought him forth abroad," meaning that God told Abraham, in effect, to give up his astrological speculations; that was not the way to acquire knowledge of God's Name. Abram, it was true, would not beget children, but Abra''ham'' would beget children. says, "So (, ''Koh'') shall your seed be." The word , ''Koh'', expresses the tenth sacred Crown of the King by which God's Name may be known; it is the Crown through which judgments are set in motion. Upon hearing God's promise in , Abraham became filled with joy, and "Abraham reckoned Her"—that is, the Crown—"for righteousness"; that is, he reckoned Her as if She were Compassion, because She had told him that he would father Isaac.
Reading , "and a great, dark dread fell over him (Abraham)," Maimonides taught that when prophets prophesied, their limbs trembled, their physical powers became weak, they lost control of their senses, and thus their minds became free to comprehend what they saw.
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:
Genesis chapters 12–36
Yehuda T. Radday analyzed the 20,504 Hebrew words in Genesis and divided them according to whether they occur in the narrator's description, in direct human speech, or in direct Divine speech. They found that the Patriarchal narrative in contains less than half the Divine speech but nearly seven times the human speech as the Primeval history in .
Gunther Plaut noted that the two pieces of Genesis, the primordial history in and the story of Abraham and Sarah and their descendants in , are quite distinct from each other, held together only by a brief genealogical bridge in . makes no mention of , not even an allusion, suggesting that the two pieces were originally quite separate and only later joined into one book.W. Gunther Plaut. ''The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition''. Revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, page 4. New York: Union for Reform Judaism
The Union for Reform Judaism (URJ), known as the Union of American Hebrew Congregations (UAHC) until 2003, founded in 1873 by Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise, is the congregational arm of Reform Judaism in North America. The other two arms establishe ...
, 2006.
John Van Seters
John Van Seters (born May 2, 1935 in Hamilton, Ontario) is a Canadian scholar of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) and the Ancient Near East. Currently University Distinguished Professor Emeritus at the University of North Carolina, he was formerly ...
argued that the Abraham cycle was a post-exilic (after the Babylonian captivity) invention of the 5th century c.e. or later.
Umberto Cassuto
Umberto Cassuto, also known as Moshe David Cassuto (16 September 1883 – 19 December 1951), was an Italian historian, a rabbi, and a scholar of the Hebrew Bible and Ugaritic literature, in the University of Florence, then at the University ...
identified the following chiastic structure in Abraham's 10 trials in
:A: "Go from your country ..."; leave his father; blessings and promises ()
::B: Sarai is in danger from Pharaoh; a sanctuary is founded at Bethel and the name of the Lord is proclaimed ()
::C: Lot goes away ()
:::D: Lot is in jeopardy and is saved ()
::::E: Threat to the birth of the first-born; birth of Ishmael; covenant to be fulfilled through second son ()
::::E1: Covenant of circumcision; birth of Isaac foretold ()
:::D1: Lot is in jeopardy and is saved ()
::C1: Sarah is in danger from Abimelech ()
::B1: Hagar and Ishmael go away; a sanctuary is founded at Beersheba
Beersheba or Beer Sheva, officially Be'er-Sheva ( he, בְּאֵר שֶׁבַע, ''Bəʾēr Ševaʿ'', ; ar, بئر السبع, Biʾr as-Sabʿ, Well of the Oath or Well of the Seven), is the largest city in the Negev desert of southern Israel. ...
and the name of the Lord is proclaimed ()
:A1: Go to the land of Moriah
Moriah ( Hebrew: , ''Mōrīyya''; Arabic: ﻣﺮﻭﻩ, ''Marwah'') is the name given to a mountainous region in the Book of Genesis, where the binding of Isaac by Abraham is said to have taken place. Jews identify the region mentioned in Genes ...
; bid farewell to his son; blessings and promises ()
James Kugel wrote that over the last 100 years, scholarship has performed something of a zigzag about the historicity
Historicity is the historical actuality of persons and events, meaning the quality of being part of history instead of being a historical myth, legend, or fiction. The historicity of a claim about the past is its factual status. Historicity denot ...
of Abraham. In the late 19th century, scholars were often skeptical of the Biblical account and believed that someone (the Jahwist
The Jahwist, or Yahwist, often abbreviated J, is one of the most widely recognized sources of the Pentateuch (Torah), together with the Deuteronomist, the Priestly source and the Elohist. The existence of the Jahwist is somewhat controversia ...
or Elohist
According to the documentary hypothesis, the Elohist (or simply E) is one of four source documents underlying the Torah,McDermott, John J., ''Reading the Pentateuch: A Historical Introduction'' (Pauline Press, 2002) p. 21. Via Books.google.com.au ...
) who lived long after the Israelites had settled Canaan made up the Abrahamic stories to justify that settlement, to claim that although Israel's ancestor had arrived from a distant region, God had granted the land to Abraham. Then, early in the 20th century, archaeologists
Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscapes ...
began turning up evidence that seemed to confirm, or at least coincide with, elements of the Genesis narrative, including evidence of Abraham's hometown, Ur; legal practices, customs, and a way of life that suited the Abrahamic narratives; the names of cities like Haran, Nahur, Terah, Peleg, and Serug mentioned in Genesis; the movement of people throughout the area in the late 18th century BCE; and documentation of adoption
Adoption is a process whereby a person assumes the parenting of another, usually a child, from that person's biological or legal parent or parents. Legal adoptions permanently transfer all rights and responsibilities, along with filiation, fro ...
s of mature adults and wives like Eliezer and Sarah. In more recent times, however, this approach has come to be questioned, as scholars found that many of the stories contain elements (like the Philistines) from long after the time of Abraham; significant differences appear between the ancient texts and the Biblical passages they supposedly explained; and the absence of any reference to Abraham in the writings of Israel's 8th- and 7th-century prophets, who otherwise refer to Sodom and Gomorrah, Jacob and Esau, and the Exodus
The Exodus (Hebrew: יציאת מצרים, ''Yeẓi’at Miẓrayim'': ) is the founding myth of the Israelites whose narrative is spread over four books of the Torah (or Pentateuch, corresponding to the first five books of the Bible), namely E ...
and Israel's desert wanderings, but do not mention Abraham until the 6th century or later. Seters argued that the Bible says that Abraham migrated from Babylon
''Bābili(m)''
* sux, 𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠
* arc, 𐡁𐡁𐡋 ''Bāḇel''
* syc, ܒܒܠ ''Bāḇel''
* grc-gre, Βαβυλών ''Babylṓn''
* he, בָּבֶל ''Bāvel''
* peo, 𐎲𐎠𐎲𐎡𐎽𐎢 ''Bābiru''
* elx, 𒀸𒁀𒉿𒇷 ''Babi ...
to Canaan to reflect the Jews' own "migration" from Babylon after having been exiled there in the 6th century. Kugel concluded that most scholars now concede that the Abrahamic stories contain some very ancient material arguably going back to the 10th or 11th century BCE, transmitted orally, and then transformed into the present, prose formulations at a time that remains the subject of debate.
Genesis chapter 12
Moshe Weinfeld Moshe Weinfeld (also ''Weinfield'', Hebrew: משה ויינפלד) (August 27, 1925 - April 29, 2009), was a professor of Bible at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 1994, he won the Israel Prize for Bible.
Biography
Moshe Weinfeld was born ...
noted that after the string of curses in , human history reached a turning point with Abraham in , as God emphatically promised blessings instead of curses.
Reading God's words to Abraham, the first Jew, in , “And you shall be a blessing,” Joseph Telushkin argued that if we undertake to incorporate Jewish teachings on ethics into our behavior, we too will become a blessing in our lives and the lives of those with whom we have contact.
Reading , Ephraim Speiser argued that it is significant that God promised to make of Abraham a great “nation” (, ''goy''), not “people” (, ''am''), for a “nation” (, ''goy'') requires a territorial base, since the concept is a political one, while a “people” (, ''am'') does not.
Baruch Spinoza
Baruch (de) Spinoza (born Bento de Espinosa; later as an author and a correspondent ''Benedictus de Spinoza'', anglicized to ''Benedict de Spinoza''; 24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677) was a Dutch philosopher of Portuguese-Jewish origin, ...
noted the similarity between God's blessing of Abraham in and Balak
Balak ( ''Bālāq'') was a king of Moab described in the Book of Numbers in the Hebrew Bible, where his dealings with the prophet Balaam are recounted. Balak tried to engage Balaam for the purpose of cursing the migrating Israelite community. On ...
's description of Balaam
Balaam (; , Standard ''Bīlʿam'' Tiberian ''Bīlʿām'') is a diviner in the Torah ( Pentateuch) whose story begins in Chapter 22 of the Book of Numbers (). Ancient references to Balaam consider him a non-Israelite, a prophet, and the son of ...
in , "he whom you bless is blessed, and he whom you curse is cursed," and deduced that Balaam also possessed the prophetic gift that God had given Abraham. Spinoza concluded that other nations, like the Jews, thus had their prophets who prophesied to them. And Spinoza concluded that Jews, apart from their social organization and government, possessed no gift of God above other peoples, and that there was no difference between Jews and non-Jews.
Spinoza deduced that the person who wrote , "the Canaanite was then in the land," must have written at a time when the Canaanites had been driven out and no longer possessed the land, and thus after the death of Moses. Spinoza noted that Abraham ibn Ezra alluded to the difficulty by noting that if, as indicates, Canaan first settled the land, then the Canaanites still possessed those territories during the time of Moses. Spinoza concluded that Moses did not write the Torah, but someone who lived long after him, and that the book that Moses wrote was something different from any now extant.
Gary Rendsburg noted that although Abraham built altars at Shechem in and between Bethel and Ai in , only in does the text report Abraham actually making a sacrifice—the ram that he found caught in the thicket that he sacrificed in lieu of Isaac. Rendsburg argued that the message would have been clear to Israelites living in Solomon
Solomon (; , ),, ; ar, سُلَيْمَان, ', , ; el, Σολομών, ; la, Salomon also called Jedidiah (Hebrew language, Hebrew: , Modern Hebrew, Modern: , Tiberian Hebrew, Tiberian: ''Yăḏīḏăyāh'', "beloved of Yahweh, Yah"), ...
's time that even though altars stood throughout the countryside, and some may even have been as old as Abraham, the only place where Abraham actually sacrificed was the mount of the Lord—Jerusalem—and that was why only the Jerusalem Temple was approved for sacrifices to God. Rendsburg concluded that royal scribes living in Jerusalem during the reigns of David and Solomon in the tenth century BCE were responsible for Genesis; their ultimate goal was to justify the monarchy in general, and the kingship of David and Solomon in particular; and Genesis thus appears as a piece of political propaganda.
Reading the three instances of the wife-sister motif in (a) ; (b) ; and (c) , Speiser argued that in a work by a single author, these three cases would present serious contradictions: Abraham would have learned nothing from his narrow escape in Egypt, and so tried the same ruse in Gerar; and Abimelech would have been so little sobered by his perilous experience with Abraham and Sarah that he fell into the identical trap with Isaac and Rebekah. Speiser concluded (on independent grounds) that the Jahwist was responsible for incidents (a) and (c), while the Elohist was responsible for incident (b). If the Elohist had been merely an annotator of the Jahwist, however, the Elohist would still have seen the contradictions for Abimelech, a man of whom the Elohist clearly approved. Speiser concluded that the Jahwist and the Elohist therefore must have worked independently.
Genesis chapter 13
Hermann Gunkel deduced that the sentence, "And the Canaanite and the Perizzite dwelt then in the land," in must have been written at a time when Canaanites and Perizzites had long since passed away, and thus at a time much after that of thePatriarchs
The highest-ranking bishops in Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, the Catholic Church (above major archbishop and primate), the Hussite Church, Church of the East, and some Independent Catholic Churches are termed patriarchs (and in certa ...
.
Genesis chapter 14
Gunkel identified as the only chapter of Genesis to contain accounts of great political events, rather than the history of a family. Plaut reported that scholars generally agree that the term “Hebrew” (, ''Ivri''), as in , came from the name of a group called ''Habiru
Habiru (sometimes written as Hapiru, and more accurately as ʿApiru, meaning "dusty, dirty"; Sumerian: 𒊓𒄤, ''sagaz''; Akkadian: 𒄩𒁉𒊒, ''ḫabiru'' or ''ʿaperu'') is a term used in 2nd-millennium BCE texts throughout the Fertile C ...
'' or ''Apiru'', people who had lost their status in the community from which they came, and who were not necessarily related except by common fate. Plaut wrote that the ''Habiru'' were a class of people who lived in the Fertile Crescent
The Fertile Crescent ( ar, الهلال الخصيب) is a crescent-shaped region in the Middle East, spanning modern-day Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine and Jordan, together with the northern region of Kuwait, southeastern region of ...
during the 19th to 14th centuries B.C.E. who may originally have come from Arabia
The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Pl ...
, became prominent in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the ...
, and later spread to Egypt. The ''Habiru'' followed distinct occupations, particularly mercenaries
A mercenary, sometimes Pseudonym, also known as a soldier of fortune or hired gun, is a private individual, particularly a soldier, that joins a military conflict for personal profit, is otherwise an outsider to the conflict, and is not a memb ...
and administrators
Administrator or admin may refer to:
Job roles Computing and internet
* Database administrator, a person who is responsible for the environmental aspects of a database
* Forum administrator, one who oversees discussions on an Internet forum
* ...
. Although at first they were nomad
A nomad is a member of a community without fixed habitation who regularly moves to and from the same areas. Such groups include hunter-gatherers, pastoral nomads (owning livestock), tinkers and trader nomads. In the twentieth century, the po ...
s or seminomads, they later settled, but were usually considered foreigners and maintaining their group identity. The term ''Habiru'' referred not so much to an ethnic or linguistic
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Linguis ...
group as to a social or political group. Plaut reported that the words ''Habiru'' and “Hebrew” (, ''Ivri'') appear to share a common linguistic root. Plaut concluded that Israelites in Egypt likely occupied positions similar to, or because of familial ties were identified with, the ''Habiru''. When non-Israelites repeatedly applied the term to the Israelites, the Israelites themselves began to use the name ''Habiru'', which they pronounced ''Ivri''. Plaut considered it possible that for some time the term ''Ivri'' was used only when the Israelites spoke of themselves to outsiders and when outsiders referred to them. Thus calls Abram ''Ivri'' vis-a-vis an outsider, and Jonah
Jonah or Jonas, ''Yōnā'', "dove"; gr, Ἰωνᾶς ''Iōnâs''; ar, يونس ' or '; Latin: ''Ionas'' Ben (Hebrew), son of Amittai, is a prophet in the Hebrew Bible and the Quran, from Gath-hepher of the northern Kingdom of Israel (Samaria ...
says, "I am an ''Ivri'',” when asked his identity by non-Israelite sailor
A sailor, seaman, mariner, or seafarer is a person who works aboard a watercraft as part of its crew, and may work in any one of a number of different fields that are related to the operation and maintenance of a ship.
The profession of the s ...
s in , but otherwise Israelites referred to themselves by their tribes (for example, Judah or Ephraim) or by their common ancestor, Israel.
Spinoza noted that reports that Abraham "pursued as far as Dan," using a name that indicates was not given to the city until after the death of Moses. Spinoza cited this as evidence that Moses did not write the Torah, but someone who lived long after him.
Spinoza read to relate that Melchizedek was king of Jerusalem and priest of the Most High God, that in the exercise of his priestly functions (like those describes) he blessed Abraham, and that Abraham gave to this priest of God a tithe
A tithe (; from Old English: ''teogoþa'' "tenth") is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a contribution to a religious organization or compulsory tax to government. Today, tithes are normally voluntary and paid in cash or cheques or more ...
of all his spoils. Spinoza deduced from this that before God founded the Israelite nation, God constituted kings and priests in Jerusalem, and ordained for them rites and laws. Spinoza deduced that while Abraham sojourned in the city, he lived scrupulously according to these laws, for Abraham had received no special rites from God; and yet reports that he observed the worship, precepts, statutes, and laws of God, which Spinoza interpreted to mean the worship, statutes, precepts, and laws of king Melchizedek.
In , which reports that Melchizedek, king of Salem and priest of El-Elyon (often translated “God Most High”), greeted Abraham with bread and wine and then blessed Abraham, Rendsburg saw the author of Genesis demonstrating the significance of Jerusalem. Rendsburg reported that virtually all scholars agree that Salem is short for Jerusalem. Abraham responded by giving Melchizedek a tenth of all he had—a priestly tithe. Then in , Abraham identified El-Elyon with YHVH. Rendsburg argued that a royal scribe in David's court included these verses to justify the continuation of the Jerusalemite priest Zadok
Zadok (or Zadok HaKohen, also spelled Ṣadok, Ṣadoc, Zadoq, Tzadok, or Tsadoq; he, צָדוֹק הַכֹּהֵן, meaning "Righteous, Justified") was a Kohen (priest), biblically recorded to be a descendant from Eleazar the son of Aaron (). H ...
as priest in Jerusalem after David took the city as his capital. The scribe, Rendsburg posited, was showing that David merely followed the precedent that the glorious ancestor Abraham set by tithing to a Canaanite priest in Jerusalem. Scholars have noticed that the account of David's life refers to two high priests—Abiathar
Abiathar ( ''ʾEḇyāṯār'', "father (of) abundance"/"abundant father"), in the Hebrew Bible, is a son of Ahimelech or Ahijah, High Priest at Nob, the fourth in descent from Eli and the last of Eli's House to be a High Priest.
Bible accou ...
and Zadok. Abiathar appears early in the narratives, for example in , even before David is king, but Zadok appears suddenly and only after David conquered Jerusalem. Rendsburg suggested that Zadok was probably the Canaanite high priest of Jerusalem, whom David permitted to continue to serve in that capacity. In that case, Zadok would also have been king of the city-state of Jerusalem. (Phoenician evidence shows that among the Canaanites, a single individual occupied both roles.) Rendsburg believed that Zadok should be identified with Araunah, who sold David the threshing floor to build an altar in . Rendsburg reported that the word ''Araunah'' was not a personal name but a title meaning “the Lord” (originally in Hurrian but in other Near Eastern languages as well); for example, calls him “Araunah the king.” More generally, Rendsburg concluded that royal scribes living in Jerusalem during the reigns of David and Solomon in the tenth century BCE were responsible for Genesis; their ultimate goal was to justify the monarchy in general, and the kingship of David and Solomon in particular; and Genesis thus appears as a piece of political propaganda.
Genesis chapter 15
In , God promised that Abraham's descendants would be as numerous as the stars of heaven. In , God promised that Abraham's descendants would be as numerous as the stars of heaven and the sands on the seashore.Carl Sagan
Carl Edward Sagan (; ; November 9, 1934December 20, 1996) was an American astronomer, planetary scientist, cosmologist, astrophysicist, astrobiologist, author, and science communicator. His best known scientific contribution is research on ex ...
reported that there are more stars in the universe than sands on all the beaches on the Earth.
Plaut noted that while some might read the report of that the time of Israel's servitude would be 400 years to conflict with the report of that the descent into Egypt would last 430 years, the two accounts were left standing side by side, because ancient readers might have considered both traditions to have come down to them and therefore requiring treatment with reverence.
Moses Mendelssohn
Moses Mendelssohn (6 September 1729 – 4 January 1786) was a German-Jewish philosopher and theologian. His writings and ideas on Jews and the Jewish religion and identity were a central element in the development of the '' Haskalah'', or ...
read the report of that "Abraham trusted in the Eternal" along with the report of that "the Israelites saw and trusted in the Eternal and in Moses, his servant" to demonstrate that the word often translated as "faith" actually means, in most cases, "trust," "confidence," and "firm reliance." Thus Mendelssohn concluded that Scripture does not command faith, but accepts no other commands than those that come by way of conviction. Its propositions are presented to the understanding, submitted for consideration, without being forced upon our belief. Belief and doubt, assent and opposition, in Mendelssohn's view, are not determined by desire, wishes, longings, fear, or hope, but by knowledge of truth and untruth. Hence, Mendelssohn concluded, ancient Judaism has no articles of faith.
Reading , Spinoza wrote that when Abraham heard God's promise, he demanded a sign, not because he did not believe in God, but because he wished to be sure that it was God Whom he heard. Spinoza concluded that prophecy itself did not afford certainty, and the prophets were assured of God's revelation not by the fact of revelation itself, but by some sign. Spinoza saw prophecy as a form of imagination, which did not, on its own, involve any certainty of truth, but required some extrinsic reason to assure its recipients of its objective reality.
Rendsburg argued that the empire of David and Solomon provided the setting for the statement in that God gave to Abraham and his descendants “this land, from the river of Egypt to the great river, the Euphrates.” Rendsburg reasoned that this passage makes sense only in the period of David and Solomon, as before David and Solomon, it would have been unimaginable for an author to use these boundaries to define the Land of Israel, and after David and Solomon, Israel once more became a small state and those boundaries were an impossibility. Rendsburg cited this as further support for his conclusion that royal scribes living in Jerusalem during the reigns of David and Solomon in the tenth century BCE were responsible for Genesis.Gary A. Rendsburg, “Reading David in Genesis: How we know the Torah was written in the tenth century B.C.E.” ''Bible Review'', volume 17, number 1 (February 2001): pages 20, 23, 26.
Genesis chapter 16
Reading the angel's blessing of Hagar in ,Lewis B. Smedes
Lewis Benedictus Smedes (August 20, 1921 – December 19, 2002) was a renowned Christian author, ethicist, and theologian in the Reformed tradition. He was a professor of theology and ethics for twenty-five years at Fuller Theological Seminary in ...
taught that just because God chose Abraham and Sarah did not mean that they were the only ones whom God chose.
Genesis chapter 17
Reading , in which God tells Abraham that “kings will issue from you,” and , in which God promises that “kings of nations” will issue from Sarah, Rendsburg noted that the text thus takes pains to make Abraham and Sarah the progenitors of a royal line. Rendsburg argued that the only time that an author would considered this necessary would be in the time of David and Solomon, as before then, there were no kings (except for the transitional Saul), and after then, kingship was a ''fait accompli''. Arguing that the only time that an author would need to justify kingship was when it was the new creation of Israelite political theorists, Rendsburg cited these verses as further evidence that royal scribes living in Jerusalem during the reigns of David and Solomon in the tenth century BCE were responsible for Genesis.Commandments
According toMaimonides
Musa ibn Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (); la, Moses Maimonides and also referred to by the acronym Rambam ( he, רמב״ם), was a Sephardic Jewish philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah ...
and Sefer ha-Chinuch, there is one positive commandment
Commandment may refer to:
* The Ten Commandments
* One of the 613 mitzvot of Judaism
* The Great Commandment
* The New Commandment
The New Commandment is a term used in Christianity to describe Jesus's commandment to "love one another" which, ac ...
in the parashah:
*The precept of circumcision.
The ''Kitzur Shulchan Aruch'' cites the words of , "Fear not, Abram" (, ''al-tirah Avram''), as an example of a verse where a missing letter , '' yud'', would cause one to have to take out another Torah scroll to read, as it would be a serious error in the scroll.
And the ''Kitzur Shulchan Aruch'' interprets God's words to Abraham in , "the father of a multitude of nations have I made you," to mean that previously, Abram was father only to Aram, but from that point onward, he would be a father to all nations. Thus, the ''Kitzur Shulchan Aruch'' cites to support the proposition that a convert may be included in a group of three or more (''mezuman'') for the purposes of the blessing after meals (, '' Birkat Hamazon'') and may say the blessing and the words of the blessing, "for giving our ancestors as a heritage."
In the liturgy
Some Jews refer to the ten trials of Abraham in as they studchapter 5
of ''
Pirkei Avot
Pirkei Avot ( he, פִּרְקֵי אָבוֹת; also transliterated as ''Pirqei Avoth'' or ''Pirkei Avos'' or ''Pirke Aboth''), which translates to English as Chapters of the Fathers, is a compilation of the ethical teachings and maxims from ...
'' on a Sabbath between Passover and Rosh Hashanah.
Jews refer to God's selection of Abraham in , God's covenant with Abraham to give his descendants the Land in , , and , and God's changing of Abram's name to Abraham in as they recite as part of the '' Pesukei D'Zimrah'' prayers during the daily morning (''Shacharit
''Shacharit'' ( he, שַחֲרִית ''šaḥăriṯ''), or ''Shacharis'' in Ashkenazi Hebrew, is the morning ''tefillah'' (prayer) of Judaism, one of the three daily prayers.
Different traditions identify different primary components o ...
'') prayer service.
The Passover
Passover, also called Pesach (; ), is a major Jewish holiday that celebrates the Biblical story of the Israelites escape from slavery in Egypt, which occurs on the 15th day of the Hebrew month of Nisan, the first month of Aviv, or spring. ...
Haggadah
The Haggadah ( he, הַגָּדָה, "telling"; plural: Haggadot) is a Jewish text that sets forth the order of the Passover Seder. According to Jewish practice, reading the Haggadah at the Seder table is a fulfillment of the mitzvah to each J ...
, in the concluding ''nirtzah'' section of the Seder, in a reference to , recounts how God granted victory to the righteous convert Abram at the middle of the night.
The name "Elyon" or "God Most High," which Melchizedek used in , is used in to refer to God, and is in turn recited after the '' Lekhah Dodi'' liturgical poem of the ''Kabbalat Shabbat'' prayer service.
The ''Amidah'' prayer draws on God's words in , "Fear not, Abram, I am a shield to you," to refer to God as "Shield of Abraham."
In the hymn ''Adon Olam
Adon Olam ( he, אֲדוֹן עוֹלָם; "Eternal Lord" or "Sovereign of the Universe") is a hymn in the Jewish liturgy. It has been a regular part of the daily and Shabbat ( Sabbath) liturgy since the 15th century.Nulman, Macy, ''Encyclopedia ...
'' ("Lord of the World"), use of the title "Adon" recalls the merit of Abraham, who first addressed God with the title in .
The Haggadah, in the ''magid'' section of the Seder, quotes to demonstrate that God keeps God's promises. Thereafter, the Haggadah reports that Israel "went down to Egypt—forced to do so by the word f God" and many commentators think that this statement refers to God's foretelling in that Abram's descendants would "be a stranger in a land that is not theirs, and shall serve them." And in the concluding ''nirtzah'' section, in a reference to God's promises to Abram in the Covenant Between the Pieces in , the Haggadah reports that God "disclosed to the one from the Orient at midnight on Passover."
Following the Kabbalat Shabbat service and prior to the Friday evening ('' Ma'ariv'') service, Jews traditionally read rabbinic sources on the observance of the Sabbath, includinMishnah Shabbat 18:3
in turn, makes clear the precedence of the law of circumcision in over even the observance of the Sabbath.
The Weekly Maqam
In the Weekly Maqam, Sephardi Jews base the songs of the services on the content of that week's parashah. For Parashah Lech Lecha, Sephardi Jews apply Maqam Saba, the maqam that symbolizes a covenant (''berit''), as in this parashah, Abraham and his sons undergo circumcisions, a ritual that signifies a covenant between man and God.See Mark L. Kligman. "The Bible, Prayer, and Maqam: Extra-Musical Associations of Syrian Jews." ''Ethnomusicology
Ethnomusicology is the study of music from the cultural and social aspects of the people who make it. It encompasses distinct theoretical and methodical approaches that emphasize cultural, social, material, cognitive, biological, and other dim ...
'', volume 45 (number 3) (Autumn 2001): pages 443–479. Mark L. Kligman. ''Maqam and Liturgy: Ritual, Music, and Aesthetics of Syrian Jews in Brooklyn''. Detroit
Detroit ( , ; , ) is the largest city in the U.S. state of Michigan. It is also the largest U.S. city on the United States–Canada border, and the seat of government of Wayne County. The City of Detroit had a population of 639,111 at t ...
: Wayne State University Press
Wayne State University Press (or WSU Press) is a university press that is part of Wayne State University. It publishes under its own name and also the imprints
Imprint or imprinting may refer to:
Entertainment
* ''Imprint'' (TV series), ...
, 2009.
Haftarah
Ahaftarah
The ''haftara'' or (in Ashkenazic pronunciation) ''haftorah'' (alt. ''haftarah, haphtara'', he, הפטרה) "parting," "taking leave", (plural form: ''haftarot'' or ''haftoros'') is a series of selections from the books of ''Nevi'im'' ("Pro ...
is a text selected from the books of Nevi'im
Nevi'im (; he, נְבִיאִים ''Nəvīʾīm'', Tiberian: ''Năḇīʾīm,'' "Prophets", literally "spokespersons") is the second major division of the Hebrew Bible (the '' Tanakh''), lying between the Torah (instruction) and Ketuvim ...
("The Prophets") that is read publicly in the synagogue after the reading of the Torah on Sabbath and holiday mornings. The haftarah usually has a thematic link to the Torah reading that precedes it.
The specific text read following Parashah Lech-Lecha varies according to different traditions within Judaism. Examples are:
*for Ashkenazi
Ashkenazi Jews ( ; he, יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכְּנַז, translit=Yehudei Ashkenaz, ; yi, אַשכּנזישע ייִדן, Ashkenazishe Yidn), also known as Ashkenazic Jews or ''Ashkenazim'',, Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation: , singu ...
and Sephardi Jews
Sephardic (or Sephardi) Jews (, ; lad, Djudíos Sefardíes), also ''Sepharadim'' , Modern Hebrew: ''Sfaradim'', Tiberian: Səp̄āraddîm, also , ''Ye'hude Sepharad'', lit. "The Jews of Spain", es, Judíos sefardíes (or ), pt, Judeus sefa ...
: -
*for Karaite Jews
Karaite Judaism () or Karaism (, sometimes spelt Karaitism (; ''Yahadut Qara'it''); also spelt Qaraite Judaism, Qaraism or Qaraitism) is a Jewish religious movement characterized by the recognition of the written Torah alone as its supreme a ...
:
Connection to the parashah
Some commentators, includingRashi
Shlomo Yitzchaki ( he, רבי שלמה יצחקי; la, Salomon Isaacides; french: Salomon de Troyes, 22 February 1040 – 13 July 1105), today generally known by the acronym Rashi (see below), was a medieval French rabbi and author of a compre ...
, interpret the verses in as referring to the Battle of Siddim
The Battle of the Vale of Siddim, also often called the War of Nine Kings or the Slaughter of Chedorlaomer, is an event in the Hebrew Bible book of that occurs in the days of Abram and Lot. The Vale of Siddim was the battleground for the cities ...
described in this parshah. Rashi interprets subsequent verses as referring to either the nations' reactions to this battle or the interaction between Abraham and Melchizedek, leading into God's promise to always aid "the seed of Abraham, who loved Me."
See also
*Hagar in Islam
Hājar ( ar, هَاجَر), known as Hagar in the Hebrew Bible, was the wife of the patriarch and Islamic prophet Ibrāhīm (Abraham) and the mother of Ismā'īl (Ishmael). She is a revered woman in the Islamic faith. According to Muslim belief ...
* Lot in Islam
Notes
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:
Ancient
Vassal treaties
of
Esarhaddon
Esarhaddon, also spelled Essarhaddon, Assarhaddon and Ashurhaddon ( Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , also , meaning " Ashur has given me a brother"; Biblical Hebrew: ''ʾĒsar-Ḥaddōn'') was the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from the death of hi ...
. Babylonia, 681–669 BCE.
*"To go/pass through" in Hans G. Guterbock & Harry A. Hoffner (eds.)''The Hittite Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago'', vol. P, 36–37
Chicago: University of Chicago, 1997.
Biblical
*; (numerous as stars); . * (circumcision). * (numerous as stars). *.Early nonrabbinic
''The Genesis Apocryphon''
Dead Sea scroll 1Q20. Land of Israel, 1st century BCE, in
Géza Vermes
Géza Vermes, (; 22 June 1924 – 8 May 2013) was a British academic, Biblical scholar, and Judaist of Hungarian Jewish descent—one who also served as a Catholic priest in his youth—and scholar specialized in the field of the history of re ...
. ''The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English'', pages 480–91. New York: Penguin Books
Penguin Books is a British publishing, publishing house. It was co-founded in 1935 by Allen Lane with his brothers Richard and John, as a line of the publishers The Bodley Head, only becoming a separate company the following year.''The Heavenly Prince Melchizedek''
Dead Sea scroll 11Q13. In Géza Vermes. ''The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English'', pages 532–34. *
''Allegorical Interpretation'' 2:
15:59
8:24; 13:39; 25:79; 26:82–27:83; 28:85; 70:197; 78:217; 81:228; 87:244
1:2
44:159
14:63
1:4
7:24; 27:105
8:26
1:1; 3:13; 9:43; 16:86; 19:107; 20:109; 27:148; 30:164; 39:216
1:2; 7:34; 12:58; 13:66; 14:69; 15:76; 16:81; 17:86; 18:90; 21:102; 25:125; 26:129; 43:207; 48:230; 49:237; 51:249; 54:267; 55:272; 56:275, 277; 60:300; 61:307, 312; 62:313
1:1; 13:63; 14:71; 17:92; 18:99; 25:139; 27:153
1:1–6; 22:119; 35:196
1:1; 3:15, 18, 22; 4:27; 5:39, 42; 6:51–52; 23:130, 136; 27:148; 33:175, 177; 37:201; 44:253; 45:263–46:264; 47:267; 48:270
1:9:47, 41:240; 2:39:25
17:77; 46:273
10:37–38
39:215–16
5:29
80
1–62.
Shabbat 18:3Nedarim 3:11Sotah 7:5Sanhedrin 10:3Eduyot 2:9Avot 5:31:1
Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. In, e.g., ''The Mishnah: A New Translation''. Translated by6:911:714:1016:317:520:625:330:41038:312–1439:1–47:1048:1–6172049:2451:952:41153:4–571354:1–255:756:25810
64:4; 67:9; 85:10; 95. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., ''Midrash Rabbah: Genesis''. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, pages 38, 49, 85, 118, 126–27, 136, 164, 207, 234, 238, 303, 310–408, 417–18, 420–23, 449, 453, 457, 463–67, 473, 476–77, 486, 492, 495, 498, 500; volume 2, pages 511–12, 518–19, 522, 525, 534, 540, 545, 555, 561, 572, 574–75, 579, 596, 613, 631, 658, 762, 771, 779, 795–96, 809, 812, 833, 848, 860, 885, 916, 921. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
*Babylonian
Berakhot 7b9b13a49a55a56b64aShabbat 89b97a105a108a118b130a132a–b133b135a–b156aEruvin 40b53aPesachim 52a69b87b92aSukkah 31aBeitzah 8bRosh Hashanah 16bTaanit 27bMegillah 16b31bMoed Katan 13a25b27b29aChagigah 12a13aYevamot 5b13b–14a42a64a70b–71a72a100bKetubot 112aNazir 23a–bSotah 4b17a32a33b38b46bKiddushin 29a39a41bBava Kamma 38b60b88a92b–93aMakkot 8b13b23b–24aMenachot 42aChullin 49a65a89aArakhin 16a–bKeritot 2aMeilah 17b
Babylonia, 6th century. In, e.g., ''Talmud Bavli''. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006. * Pesikta de-Rav Kahana 5:2:1. 6th–7th century. In, e.g., ''Pesiqta deRab Kahana: An Analytical Translation and Explanation.'' Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, page 71. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987.
Genesis 12–17
2:14, 16, 34, 44, 80
Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. ''Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel.'' Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, pages 90, 92, 108, 110, 132, 142, 223. New York: Schocken, 1964. * Abraham ibn Ezra
''Commentary on the Torah''
Mid-12th century. In, e.g., ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit)''. Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, pages 149–88. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 1988.
*
''Hilchot Yesodei HaTorah (The Laws that Are the Foundations of the Torah)'', chapter 2, halachah 7
Egypt, circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., ''Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Yesodei HaTorah: The Laws
*Maimonides. ''Mishneh Torah''
''Hilchot Avodat Kochavim V'Chukkoteihem (The Laws of the Worship of Stars and their Statutes)'', chapter 1, halachot 2–3
Egypt, circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., ''Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Avodat Kochavim V'Chukkoteihem: The Laws of the Worship of Stars and their Statutes''.Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 3, pages 16–31. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1990. . *
*
*Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. ''Commentaries on the Torah''. Cracow, Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as ''Chanukat HaTorah''. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. ''Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash''. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 48–52.
chapter 4
Amsterdam, 1740. In ''Mesillat Yesharim: The Path of the Just'', page 53. Jerusalem: Feldheim, 1966. * Chaim ibn Attar. ''Ohr ha-Chaim''. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. ''Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah''. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 1, pages 118–56. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.
*
"The Pentateuchal Question. II. Gen. 12:6–37:1."
''
"Genesis XIV. 20; XV. 1."
''The Old and New Testament Student'', volume 11 (number 1 (July 1890): pages 45–47.
"Melchizedek."
''The Old and New Testament Student'', volume 14 (number 2) (February 1892): page 121.
*Edwin Cone Bissell
"Is Genesis 21:9–21 a Duplicate of Genesis 16:5–14?"
''The Biblical World'', volume 2 (number 6) (December 1893): pages 407–11. * Hermann Gunkel
"The Two Accounts of Hagar (Genesis xvi. and xxi., 8–21.)."
'' The Monist'', volume 10 (number 3) (April 1900): pages 321–42. *Charles Edo Anderson
"Who Was Melchizedek?—A Suggested Emendation of Gen. 14:18."
'' The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures'', volume 19 (number 3) (April 1903): pages 176–77.
* Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. ''Sefat Emet''. 
* Hermann Cohen. ''Religion of Reason: Out of the Sources of Judaism''. Translated with an introduction by Simon Kaplan; introductory essays by 
*
"The Controversial Figure of Melchizedek."
''
"The 'Shield' of Abraham?"
''
* Yigael Yadin
"A Note on Melchizedek and Qumran."
'' Israel Exploration Journal'', volume 15 (number 3) (1965): pages 152–54. *Michael C. Astour. "Political and Cosmic Symbolism in Genesis 14 and Its Babylonian Sources." In ''Biblical Motifs: Origins and Transformations''. Edited by Alexander Altmann, pages 65–112. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, 1966. * John A. Emerton
"Melchizedek and the Gods: Fresh Evidence for the Jewish Background of John X. 34–36."
''
"Further Light on Melchizedek from Qumran Cave 11."
''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 86 (number 1) (March 1967): pages 25–41. * Harold H. Rowley
"Melchizedek and David."
''Vetus Testamentum'', volume 17 (number 4) (October 1967): page 485. * Delmore Schwartz. "Abraham" an
"Sarah."
In ''Selected Poems: Summer Knowledge'', pages 230–32. New York: New Directions, 1967. *
"Odysseus' Scar."
In '' Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature'', pages 3–23. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968. (comparing accounts of Odysseus and Abraham).
*
"Abram's 318."
''Israel Exploration Journal'', volume 19 (number 2) (1968): pages 110–13. *Merril P. Miller
"The Function of Isa 61:1–2 in 11Q Melchizedek."
''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 88 (number 4) (December 1969): pages 467–69. *R. David Freedman
"A New Approach to the Nuzi Sistership Contract."
''
"Abram's 'Damascene' Steward."
'' Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'', volume 200 (December 1970): pages 31–32. (). *John A. Emerton. "Some False Clues in the Study of Genesis XIV." ''Vetus Testamentum'', volume 21 (number 1) (1971): pages 24–27. *John A. Emerton
"The Riddle of Genesis XIV."
''Vetus Testamentum'', volume 21 (number 4) (October 1971): ppages 403–39. *John G. Gammie
"Loci of Melchizedek Tradition of Genesis 14:18–20."
''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 90 (number 4) (December 1971): pages 385–96. *
"Sisterhood Adoption at Nuzi and the 'Wife-Sister' in Genesis."
''Hebrew Union College Annual'', volume 46 (1975): pages 5–31. *Sean E. McEvenue. "A Comparison of Narrative Styles in the Hagar Stories." ''
“The Patriarchs and Extra-Biblical Sources.”
'' Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 1, number 2 (June 1976): pages 50–61. * J. Maxwell Miller
“The Patriarchs and Extra-Biblical Sources: a Response.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 1, number 2 (June 1976): pages 62–66. *J. Russell Kirkland. "The Incident at Salem: A Reexamination of Gen 14:18–23." ''Studia Biblica et Theologica'', volume 7 (1977): pages 3–23. *John Tracy Luke
“Abraham and the Iron Age: Reflections on the New Patriarchal Studies.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 2, number 4 (February 1977): pages 35–47. * Peter C. Craigie. ''The Problem of War in the Old Testament'', page 9.
"The Unity of Genesis 12:1–9."
''Proceedings of the World Congress of Jewish Studies'', volume 1 (division A) (1973): pages 229–35. *
Dead Sea scroll 11Q13. In Géza Vermes. ''The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English'', pages 532–34. *
Philo
Philo of Alexandria (; grc, Φίλων, Phílōn; he, יְדִידְיָה, Yəḏīḏyāh (Jedediah); ), also called Philo Judaeus, was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt.
Philo's de ...
''Allegorical Interpretation'' 2:
15:59
8:24; 13:39; 25:79; 26:82–27:83; 28:85; 70:197; 78:217; 81:228; 87:244
1:2
44:159
14:63
1:4
7:24; 27:105
8:26
1:1; 3:13; 9:43; 16:86; 19:107; 20:109; 27:148; 30:164; 39:216
1:2; 7:34; 12:58; 13:66; 14:69; 15:76; 16:81; 17:86; 18:90; 21:102; 25:125; 26:129; 43:207; 48:230; 49:237; 51:249; 54:267; 55:272; 56:275, 277; 60:300; 61:307, 312; 62:313
1:1; 13:63; 14:71; 17:92; 18:99; 25:139; 27:153
1:1–6; 22:119; 35:196
1:1; 3:15, 18, 22; 4:27; 5:39, 42; 6:51–52; 23:130, 136; 27:148; 33:175, 177; 37:201; 44:253; 45:263–46:264; 47:267; 48:270
1:9:47, 41:240; 2:39:25
17:77; 46:273
10:37–38
39:215–16
5:29
80
1–62.
Alexandria
Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandri ...
, Egypt, early 1st century CE. In, e.g., ''The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition''. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge
Charles Duke Yonge (30 November 1812 – 30 November 1891) was an English historian, classicist and cricketer. He wrote numerous works of modern history, and translated several classical works. His younger brother was George Edward Yonge.
Biogr ...
, pages 44, 52, 54, 59, 73, 75–76, 78, 80, 129, 157–58, 209, 216, 236, 253–54, 257, 261, 263, 267, 269, 274, 276, 278, 281–84, 286, 293, 295–97, 299–300, 302–04, 309–10, 312, 316–17, 321, 331, 339, 341–46, 352–53, 356, 358, 363–64, 369, 386, 406, 418, 434, 521, 662, 684, 839, 841–63. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1993.
*Josephus
Flavius Josephus (; grc-gre, Ἰώσηπος, ; 37 – 100) was a first-century Romano-Jewish historian and military leader, best known for '' The Jewish War'', who was born in Jerusalem—then part of Roman Judea—to a father of priestly ...
. '' The Wars of the Jews'', 5:9:4; 7:10:1. Circa 75 CE. In, e.g., ''The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition''. Translated by William Whiston
William Whiston (9 December 166722 August 1752) was an English theologian, historian, natural philosopher, and mathematician, a leading figure in the popularisation of the ideas of Isaac Newton. He is now probably best known for helping to inst ...
, 716. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
* Apocalypse of Abraham. Circa 70–150 CE. Translated by R. Rubinkiewicz. In ''The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Volume 1: Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments''. Edited by James H. Charlesworth, pages 681–705. New York: Anchor Bible
The Anchor Bible Series, which consists of a commentary series, a Bible dictionary, and a reference library, is a scholarly and commercial co-venture which was begun in 1956, with the publication of individual volumes in the commentary series. Ove ...
, 1983.
* Testament of Abraham. Circa 1st or 2nd century CE. Translated by E. P. Sanders. In ''The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Volume 1: Apocalyptic Literature and Testaments''. Edited by James H. Charlesworth, pages 871–902. New York: Anchor Bible, 1983.
*Qur'an
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , si ...
2:258; 4:163; 6:74–84; 19:41–50. Arabia, 7th century.
Classical rabbinic
*Mishnah
The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Tor ...
: Orlah 1:1–3:9Shabbat 18:3
Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. In, e.g., ''The Mishnah: A New Translation''. Translated by
Jacob Neusner
Jacob Neusner (July 28, 1932 – October 8, 2016) was an American academic scholar of Judaism. He was named as one of the most published authors in history, having written or edited more than 900 books.
Life and career
Neusner was born in Hartfor ...
, pages 158–66, 201–02, 411–12, 458, 604–05, 645–46, 685, 836. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
*Tosefta
The Tosefta ( Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: תוספתא "supplement, addition") is a compilation of the Jewish oral law from the late 2nd century, the period of the Mishnah.
Overview
In many ways, the Tosefta acts as a supplement to the Mishnah ( ...
: Berakhot 1:12–13; Orlah 1:1–8; Shabbat 7:24, 15:9; Yevamot 8:5; Nedarim 2:5; Sotah 5:12; Sanhedrin 13:8; Eduyot 1:14. Land of Israel, circa 300 CE. In, e.g., ''The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction''. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 7, 158–66, 341–43, 381, 415, 712, 789, 853, 1190, 1250. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002.
*Jerusalem Talmud
The Jerusalem Talmud ( he, תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשַׁלְמִי, translit=Talmud Yerushalmi, often for short), also known as the Palestinian Talmud or Talmud of the Land of Israel, is a collection of rabbinic notes on the second-century ...
: Berakhot 17a–b; Sheviit 43b; Challah 17a; Bikkurim 5b; Shabbat 106b–07a; Taanit 8b; Megillah 15b; Chagigah 2b; Yevamot 36b, 43b; Ketubot 49a; Nedarim 12a–b; Sotah 32b; Kiddushin 11b, 16b, 19b, 23a; Sanhedrin 17b, 68a; Makkot 9a. Tiberias
Tiberias ( ; he, טְבֶרְיָה, ; ar, طبريا, Ṭabariyyā) is an Israeli city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. A major Jewish center during Late Antiquity, it has been considered since the 16th century one of Judaism's F ...
, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., ''Talmud Yerushalmi''. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 1, 6b, 11–12, 15, 25–27, 29–30, 32–33, 37, 40, 44–45, 49. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2005–2019. And in, e.g., ''The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary''. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.
*Genesis Rabbah
Genesis Rabbah (Hebrew: , ''B'reshith Rabba'') is a religious text from Judaism's classical period, probably written between 300 and 500 CE with some later additions. It is a midrash comprising a collection of ancient rabbinical homiletical inter ...
br>5:864:4; 67:9; 85:10; 95. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., ''Midrash Rabbah: Genesis''. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, pages 38, 49, 85, 118, 126–27, 136, 164, 207, 234, 238, 303, 310–408, 417–18, 420–23, 449, 453, 457, 463–67, 473, 476–77, 486, 492, 495, 498, 500; volume 2, pages 511–12, 518–19, 522, 525, 534, 540, 545, 555, 561, 572, 574–75, 579, 596, 613, 631, 658, 762, 771, 779, 795–96, 809, 812, 833, 848, 860, 885, 916, 921. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
*Babylonian Talmud
The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law ('' halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the ce ...
Berakhot 7b
Babylonia, 6th century. In, e.g., ''Talmud Bavli''. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006. * Pesikta de-Rav Kahana 5:2:1. 6th–7th century. In, e.g., ''Pesiqta deRab Kahana: An Analytical Translation and Explanation.'' Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, page 71. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987.
Medieval
*Rashi
Shlomo Yitzchaki ( he, רבי שלמה יצחקי; la, Salomon Isaacides; french: Salomon de Troyes, 22 February 1040 – 13 July 1105), today generally known by the acronym Rashi (see below), was a medieval French rabbi and author of a compre ...
. ''Commentary''Genesis 12–17
Troyes
Troyes () is a commune and the capital of the department of Aube in the Grand Est region of north-central France. It is located on the Seine river about south-east of Paris. Troyes is situated within the Champagne wine region and is near ...
, France, late 11th century. In, e.g., Rashi. ''The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated''. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 1, pages 115–72. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1995.
*Judah Halevi
Judah Halevi (also Yehuda Halevi or ha-Levi; he, יהודה הלוי and Judah ben Shmuel Halevi ; ar, يهوذا اللاوي ''Yahuḏa al-Lāwī''; 1075 – 1141) was a Spanish Jewish physician, poet and philosopher. He was born in Spain, ...
. ''Kuzari
The ''Kuzari'', full title ''Book of Refutation and Proof on Behalf of the Despised Religion'' ( ar, كتاب الحجة والدليل في نصرة الدين الذليل: ''Kitâb al-ḥujja wa'l-dalîl fi naṣr al-dîn al-dhalîl''), also k ...
''2:14, 16, 34, 44, 80
Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. ''Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel.'' Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, pages 90, 92, 108, 110, 132, 142, 223. New York: Schocken, 1964. * Abraham ibn Ezra
''Commentary on the Torah''
Mid-12th century. In, e.g., ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit)''. Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, pages 149–88. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 1988.
*Maimonides
Musa ibn Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (); la, Moses Maimonides and also referred to by the acronym Rambam ( he, רמב״ם), was a Sephardic Jewish philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah ...
. ''Mishneh Torah
The ''Mishneh Torah'' ( he, מִשְׁנֵה תּוֹרָה, , repetition of the Torah), also known as ''Sefer Yad ha-Hazaka'' ( he, ספר יד החזקה, , book of the strong hand, label=none), is a code of Rabbinic Jewish religious law ('' ...
''''Hilchot Yesodei HaTorah (The Laws that Are the Foundations of the Torah)'', chapter 2, halachah 7
Egypt, circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., ''Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Yesodei HaTorah: The Laws
hich Are
Ij ( fa, ايج, also Romanized as Īj; also known as Hich and Īch) is a village in Golabar Rural District, in the Central District of Ijrud County
Ijrud County ( fa, شهرستان ایجرود) is located in Zanjan province, Iran. The c ...
the Foundations of the Torah''. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 1, pages 166–69, 248–49. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989.
*Maimonides. ''Mishneh Torah''''Hilchot Avodat Kochavim V'Chukkoteihem (The Laws of the Worship of Stars and their Statutes)'', chapter 1, halachot 2–3
Egypt, circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., ''Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Avodat Kochavim V'Chukkoteihem: The Laws of the Worship of Stars and their Statutes''.Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 3, pages 16–31. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1990. . *
Hezekiah ben Manoah Hezekiah ben Manoah, or Hezekiah bar Manoah, was a French rabbi and Bible commentator of the 13th century. He is generally known by the title of his commentary, Chizkuni ( he, חזקוני).
In memory of his father, who lost his right hand through ...
. ''Hizkuni''. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. ''Chizkuni: Torah Commentary''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 1, pages 103–30. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013.
*Nachmanides
Moses ben Nachman ( he, מֹשֶׁה בֶּן־נָחְמָן ''Mōše ben-Nāḥmān'', "Moses son of Nachman"; 1194–1270), commonly known as Nachmanides (; el, Ναχμανίδης ''Nakhmanídēs''), and also referred to by the acronym Ra ...
. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., ''Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah: Genesis.'' Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 1, pages 164–225. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1971.
*''Midrash ha-Ne'lam (The Midrash of the Concealed)''. Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = '' Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, ...
, 13th century. In ''Zohar Chadash'', pages 24a–26b. Salonika
Thessaloniki (; el, Θεσσαλονίκη, , also known as Thessalonica (), Saloniki, or Salonica (), is the second-largest city in Greece, with over one million inhabitants in its metropolitan area, and the capital of the geographic region of ...
, 1597. In, e.g., ''The Zohar: Pritzker Edition''. Translation and commentary by Nathan Wolski, volume 10, pages 275–315. Stanford, California
Stanford is a census-designated place (CDP) in the northwest corner of Santa Clara County, California, United States. It is the home of Stanford University. The population was 21,150 at the 2020 census.
Stanford is an unincorporated area of ...
: Stanford University Press
Stanford University Press (SUP) is the publishing house of Stanford University. It is one of the oldest academic presses in the United States and the first university press to be established on the West Coast. It was among the presses officially ...
, 2016.
*Zohar
The ''Zohar'' ( he, , ''Zōhar'', lit. "Splendor" or "Radiance") is a foundational work in the literature of Jewish mystical thought known as Kabbalah. It is a group of books including commentary on the mystical aspects of the Torah (the five ...
, part 1, pages 76b–96b. Spain, late 13th century. In, e.g., ''The Zohar''. Translated by Harry Sperling, Maurice Simon, and Paul P. Levertoff. 5 volumes. London: Soncino Press, 1934.
*Bahya ben Asher
Bahya ben Asher ibn Halawa (, 1255–1340) was a rabbi and scholar of Judaism, best known as a commentator on the Hebrew Bible.
He is one of two scholars now referred to as Rabbeinu Behaye, the other being philosopher Bahya ibn Paquda.
Biog ...
. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Spain, early 14th century. In, e.g., ''Midrash Rabbeinu Bachya: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Bachya ben Asher''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 1, pages 216–75. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2003.
* Isaac ben Moses Arama. ''Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac)''. Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. ''Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah''. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 1, pages 92–125. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.
Modern
* Isaac Abravanel. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Italy, between 1492 and 1509. In, e.g., ''Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 1: Bereishis/Genesis''. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 82–103. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015. * Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. ''Commentary on the Torah''.Venice
Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 ...
, 1567. In, e.g., ''Sforno: Commentary on the Torah''. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 62–85. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
*Moshe Alshich
Moshe Alshich he, משה אלשיך, also spelled Alshech, (1508–1593), known as the ''Alshich Hakadosh (the Holy)'', was a prominent rabbi, preacher, and biblical commentator in the latter part of the sixteenth century.
The Alshich was born ...
. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Safed
Safed (known in Hebrew as Tzfat; Sephardic Hebrew & Modern Hebrew: צְפַת ''Tsfat'', Ashkenazi Hebrew: ''Tzfas'', Biblical Hebrew: ''Ṣǝp̄aṯ''; ar, صفد, ''Ṣafad''), is a city in the Northern District of Israel. Located at an elev ...
, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. ''Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 1, pages 91–115. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000.
* Menasseh ben Israel. ''El Conciliador (The Conciliator)''. Amsterdam, 1632. In ''The Conciliator of R. Manasseh Ben Israel: A Reconcilement of the Apparent Contradictions in Holy Scripture: To Which Are Added Explanatory Notes, and Biographical Notices of the Quoted Authorities''. Translated by Elias Hiam Lindo, pages 48–64. London, 1842. Reprinted by, e.g., Nabu Press, 2010.
*Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. ''Commentaries on the Torah''. Cracow, Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as ''Chanukat HaTorah''. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. ''Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash''. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 48–52. Southfield, Michigan
Southfield is a city in Oakland County in the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 76,618.
As a northern suburb of Detroit, Southfield shares part of its southern border with Detroit. The city was original ...
: Targum Press
Menucha Publishers is an Orthodox Jewish
Orthodox Judaism is the collective term for the traditionalist and theologically conservative branches of contemporary Judaism. Theologically, it is chiefly defined by regarding the Torah, both Writt ...
/Feldheim Publishers
Feldheim Publishers (or Feldheim) is an American Orthodox Jewish publisher of Torah books and literature. Its extensive catalog of titles includes books on Jewish law, Torah, Talmud, Jewish lifestyle, Shabbat and Jewish holidays, Jewish history, ...
, 2004.
*Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes ( ; 5/15 April 1588 – 4/14 December 1679) was an English philosopher, considered to be one of the founders of modern political philosophy. Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book '' Leviathan'', in which he expounds an influ ...
. ''Leviathan
Leviathan (; he, לִוְיָתָן, ) is a sea serpent noted in theology and mythology. It is referenced in several books of the Hebrew Bible, including Psalms, the Book of Job, the Book of Isaiah, the Book of Amos, and, according to some ...
'', 2:26; 3:33, 34, 35, 36. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, pages 332, 417, 436, 443–44, 459–60. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982.
*Baruch Spinoza
Baruch (de) Spinoza (born Bento de Espinosa; later as an author and a correspondent ''Benedictus de Spinoza'', anglicized to ''Benedict de Spinoza''; 24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677) was a Dutch philosopher of Portuguese-Jewish origin, ...
. '' Theologico-Political Treatise'', chapters 2, 3, 8. Amsterdam
Amsterdam ( , , , lit. ''The Dam on the River Amstel'') is the capital and most populous city of the Netherlands, with The Hague being the seat of government. It has a population of 907,976 within the city proper, 1,558,755 in the urban ar ...
, 1670. In, e.g., Baruch Spinoza. ''Theological-Political Treatise''. Translated by Samuel Shirley, pages 22, 39–41, 106–08, 232. Indianapolis
Indianapolis (), colloquially known as Indy, is the state capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Indiana and the seat of Marion County. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the consolidated population of Indianapolis and Marion ...
: Hackett Publishing Company
Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. is an academic publishing house located in Indianapolis, Indiana. Since beginning operations in 1972, Hackett has concentrated mainly on the humanities, especially classical and philosophical texts. Many Hacket ...
, 2nd edition, 2001.
*Moshe Chaim Luzzatto
Moshe Chaim Luzzatto ( he, משה חיים לוצאטו, also ''Moses Chaim'', ''Moses Hayyim'', also ''Luzzato'') (1707 – 16 May 1746 (26 ''Iyar'' 5506)), also known by the Hebrew acronym RaMCHaL (or RaMHaL, ), was a prominent Itali ...
. '' Mesillat Yesharim''chapter 4
Amsterdam, 1740. In ''Mesillat Yesharim: The Path of the Just'', page 53. Jerusalem: Feldheim, 1966. * Chaim ibn Attar. ''Ohr ha-Chaim''. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. ''Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah''. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 1, pages 118–56. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.
*Moses Mendelssohn
Moses Mendelssohn (6 September 1729 – 4 January 1786) was a German-Jewish philosopher and theologian. His writings and ideas on Jews and the Jewish religion and identity were a central element in the development of the '' Haskalah'', or ...
. ''Jerusalem
Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
'', § 2. Berlin, 1783. In ''Jerusalem: Or on Religious Power and Judaism''. Translated by Allan Arkush; introduction and commentary by Alexander Altmann, page 100. Hanover, New Hampshire: Brandeis University Press, 1983.
* Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). ''Commentary on the Torah.'' Padua
Padua ( ; it, Padova ; vec, Pàdova) is a city and ''comune'' in Veneto, northern Italy. Padua is on the river Bacchiglione, west of Venice. It is the capital of the province of Padua. It is also the economic and communications hub of the ...
, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. ''Torah Commentary''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 1, pages 137–75. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012.
*W. Henry Green"The Pentateuchal Question. II. Gen. 12:6–37:1."
''
Hebraica
Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved t ...
'', volume 6 (number 2) (January 1890): pages 109–38.
*W.W. Martin"Genesis XIV. 20; XV. 1."
''The Old and New Testament Student'', volume 11 (number 1 (July 1890): pages 45–47.
"Melchizedek."
''The Old and New Testament Student'', volume 14 (number 2) (February 1892): page 121.
*Edwin Cone Bissell"Is Genesis 21:9–21 a Duplicate of Genesis 16:5–14?"
''The Biblical World'', volume 2 (number 6) (December 1893): pages 407–11. * Hermann Gunkel
"The Two Accounts of Hagar (Genesis xvi. and xxi., 8–21.)."
'' The Monist'', volume 10 (number 3) (April 1900): pages 321–42. *Charles Edo Anderson
"Who Was Melchizedek?—A Suggested Emendation of Gen. 14:18."
'' The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures'', volume 19 (number 3) (April 1903): pages 176–77.
* Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. ''Sefat Emet''. Góra Kalwaria
Góra Kalwaria (; "Calvary Mountain", yi, גער, ''Ger'') is a town on the Vistula River in the Masovian Voivodeship, in east-central Poland. It is situated approximately southeast of Warsaw and has a population of around 12,109 (as of 201 ...
(Ger), Poland
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populou ...
, before 1906. Excerpted in ''The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet''. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 19–25. Philadelphia
Philadelphia, often called Philly, is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the sixth-largest city in the U.S., the second-largest city in both the Northeast megalopolis and Mid-Atlantic regions after New York City. Since ...
: Jewish Publication Society
The Jewish Publication Society (JPS), originally known as the Jewish Publication Society of America, is the oldest nonprofit, nondenominational publisher of Jewish works in English. Founded in Philadelphia in 1888, by reform Rabbi Joseph Krausko ...
, 1998. Reprinted 2012.
*Abraham Isaac Kook
Abraham Isaac Kook (; 7 September 1865 – 1 September 1935), known as Rav Kook, and also known by the acronym HaRaAYaH (), was an Orthodox rabbi, and the first Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of British Mandatory Palestine. He is considered to be one o ...
. ''The Moral Principles''. Early 20th century. In ''Abraham Isaac Kook: the Lights of Penitence, the Moral Principles, Lights of Holiness, Essays, Letters, and Poems''. Translated by Ben Zion Bokser, page 182. Mahwah, New Jersey: Paulist Press 1978.
* Hermann Cohen. ''Religion of Reason: Out of the Sources of Judaism''. Translated with an introduction by Simon Kaplan; introductory essays by Leo Strauss
Leo Strauss (, ; September 20, 1899 – October 18, 1973) was a German-American political philosopher who specialized in classical political philosophy. Born in Germany to Jewish parents, Strauss later emigrated from Germany to the United States. ...
, page 301. New York: Ungar, 1972. Reprinted Atlanta
Atlanta ( ) is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Georgia. It is the seat of Fulton County, the most populous county in Georgia, but its territory falls in both Fulton and DeKalb counties. With a population of 498,7 ...
: Scholars Press, 1995. Originally published as ''Religion der Vernunft aus den Quellen des Judentums''. Leipzig
Leipzig ( , ; Upper Saxon: ) is the most populous city in the German state of Saxony. Leipzig's population of 605,407 inhabitants (1.1 million in the larger urban zone) as of 2021 places the city as Germany's eighth most populous, as ...
: Gustav Fock, 1919.
* Benno Jacob. ''The First Book of the Bible: Genesis''. Translated by Ernest Jacob and Walter Jacob, pages 85–115. Jersey City, New Jersey: KTAV Publishing House, 1974. Originally published as ''Das erste Buch der Tora, Genesis: Übersetzt und erklärt von Benno Jacob''. Berlin: Schocken Verlag, 1934.
*Alexander Alan Steinbach. ''Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch'', pages 8–10. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
*Irving Fineman. ''Jacob, An Autobiographical Novel'', pages 11, 17. New York: Random House, 1941.
*Thomas Mann
Paul Thomas Mann ( , ; ; 6 June 1875 – 12 August 1955) was a German novelist, short story writer, social critic, philanthropist, essayist, and the 1929 Nobel Prize in Literature laureate. His highly symbolic and ironic epic novels and novell ...
. '' Joseph and His Brothers''. Translated by John E. Woods, pages 4–11, 36, 43, 52–54, 59, 78, 89–91, 93, 95–98, 100–02, 125, 141, 148, 153–54, 177, 256–57, 309–10, 339–55, 385, 425, 492, 523, 555, 593–94, 596, 671, 763, 778–79, 781, 788, 806, 859. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. Originally published as ''Joseph und seine Brüder''. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943.
*Umberto Cassuto
Umberto Cassuto, also known as Moshe David Cassuto (16 September 1883 – 19 December 1951), was an Italian historian, a rabbi, and a scholar of the Hebrew Bible and Ugaritic literature, in the University of Florence, then at the University ...
. ''A Commentary on the Book of Genesis: Part Two: From Noah to Abraham''. Jerusalem, 1949. Translated by Israel Abrahams, pages 289–369. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press, The Hebrew University, 1964; reprinted 1974.
*Zofia Kossak
Zofia Kossak-Szczucka ( (also Kossak-Szatkowska); 10 August 1889 – 9 April 1968) was a Polish writer and World War II resistance fighter. She co-founded two wartime Polish organizations: Front for the Rebirth of Poland and Żegota, set up ...
. ''The Covenant: A Novel of the Life of Abraham the Prophet''. New York: Roy, 1951.
* Jakob J. Petuchowski"The Controversial Figure of Melchizedek."
''
Hebrew Union College Annual
The ''Hebrew Union College Annual'' (HUCA) is an annual peer-reviewed academic journal in the field of Jewish studies. It was established in 1924 and is published by the Hebrew Union College. The editors-in-chief
An editor-in-chief (EIC), also kn ...
'', volume 28 (1957): pages 127–36.
*Loren R. Fisher. "Abraham and His Priest-King." ''Journal of Biblical Literature
The ''Journal of Biblical Literature'' (''JBL'') is one of three academic journals published by the Society of Biblical Literature (SBL). First published in 1881, ''JBL'' is the flagship journal of the field. ''JBL'' is published quarterly and incl ...
'', volume 81 (number 3) (1962): pages 264–70.
*Martin Kessler"The 'Shield' of Abraham?"
''
Vetus Testamentum
''Vetus Testamentum'' is a quarterly academic journal covering various aspects of the Old Testament. It is published by Brill Publishers
Brill Academic Publishers (known as E. J. Brill, Koninklijke Brill, Brill ()) is a Dutch international ...
'', volume 14 (number 4) (October 1964): pages 494–97. ().
*Walter Orenstein and Hertz Frankel. ''Torah and Tradition: A Bible Textbook for Jewish Youth: Volume I: Bereishis'', pages 25–37. New York: Hebrew Publishing Company, 1964.
* Yigael Yadin"A Note on Melchizedek and Qumran."
'' Israel Exploration Journal'', volume 15 (number 3) (1965): pages 152–54. *Michael C. Astour. "Political and Cosmic Symbolism in Genesis 14 and Its Babylonian Sources." In ''Biblical Motifs: Origins and Transformations''. Edited by Alexander Altmann, pages 65–112. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University, 1966. * John A. Emerton
"Melchizedek and the Gods: Fresh Evidence for the Jewish Background of John X. 34–36."
''
The Journal of Theological Studies
''The Journal of Theological Studies'' is an academic journal established in 1899 and now published by Oxford University Press in April and October each year. It publishes theological research, scholarship, and interpretation, and hitherto unpubli ...
'' (new series), volume 17 (number 2) (October 1966): pages 399–401.
* Gerhard von Rad. “Faith Reckoned as Righteousness.” In ''The Problem of the Hexateuch and Other Essays'', pages 125–30. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966. LCCN 66-11432.
* Ronald E. Clements. ''Abraham and David: Genesis 15 and Its Meaning for Israelite Tradition.'' London: SCM Press, 1967.
* Joseph A. Fitzmyer"Further Light on Melchizedek from Qumran Cave 11."
''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 86 (number 1) (March 1967): pages 25–41. * Harold H. Rowley
"Melchizedek and David."
''Vetus Testamentum'', volume 17 (number 4) (October 1967): page 485. * Delmore Schwartz. "Abraham" an
"Sarah."
In ''Selected Poems: Summer Knowledge'', pages 230–32. New York: New Directions, 1967. *
Erich Auerbach
Erich Auerbach (November 9, 1892 – October 13, 1957) was a German philologist and comparative scholar and critic of literature. His best-known work is '' Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature'', a history of represe ...
"Odysseus' Scar."
In '' Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature'', pages 3–23. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968. (comparing accounts of Odysseus and Abraham).
*Martin Buber
Martin Buber ( he, מרטין בובר; german: Martin Buber; yi, מארטין בובער; February 8, 1878 –
June 13, 1965) was an Austrian Jewish and Israeli philosopher best known for his philosophy of dialogue, a form of existentialism ...
. ''On the Bible: Eighteen studies'', pages 22–43. New York: Schocken Books, 1968.
* Jacob Weingreen. " in Genesis 15:7." In ''Words and Meanings: Essays Presented to David Winton Thomas''. Edited by Peter R. Ackroyd and Barnabas Lindars
Barnabas Lindars (born Frederick Chevallier Lindars; 1923–1991) was an English New Testament scholar. Born 11 June 1923, Lindars was educated at Altrincham Grammar School and then studied at St John's College, Cambridge. He was ordained as an ...
, pages 209–15. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968.
*Stanley Gevirtz"Abram's 318."
''Israel Exploration Journal'', volume 19 (number 2) (1968): pages 110–13. *Merril P. Miller
"The Function of Isa 61:1–2 in 11Q Melchizedek."
''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 88 (number 4) (December 1969): pages 467–69. *R. David Freedman
"A New Approach to the Nuzi Sistership Contract."
''
Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society
The ''Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society'' (JANES) is a biannual peer-reviewed academic journal. It was established in 1968 as ''The Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society of Columbia University'', and since 1980 it has been housed a ...
'', volume 2 (number 2) (1970): pages 77–85.
* Harold L. Ginsberg"Abram's 'Damascene' Steward."
'' Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'', volume 200 (December 1970): pages 31–32. (). *John A. Emerton. "Some False Clues in the Study of Genesis XIV." ''Vetus Testamentum'', volume 21 (number 1) (1971): pages 24–27. *John A. Emerton
"The Riddle of Genesis XIV."
''Vetus Testamentum'', volume 21 (number 4) (October 1971): ppages 403–39. *John G. Gammie
"Loci of Melchizedek Tradition of Genesis 14:18–20."
''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 90 (number 4) (December 1971): pages 385–96. *
Mario Brelich
Mario Brelich (1910–1982) was an Italian author born in Budapest
Budapest (, ; ) is the capital and most populous city of Hungary. It is the ninth-largest city in the European Union by population within city limits and the second-larg ...
. ''The Holy Embrace''. Translated by John Shepley. Marlboro, Vermont: Marlboro Press, 1994. Originally published as ''Il Sacro Amplesso''. Milan: Adelphi Edizioni s.p.a., 1972.
*Samuel Greengus"Sisterhood Adoption at Nuzi and the 'Wife-Sister' in Genesis."
''Hebrew Union College Annual'', volume 46 (1975): pages 5–31. *Sean E. McEvenue. "A Comparison of Narrative Styles in the Hagar Stories." ''
Semeia
''Semeia'' was a journal published by the Society of Biblical Literature, "devoted to the exploration of new and emergent areas and methods of biblical criticism."
Semeia Studies
After 2002, the journal Semeia was replaced by the book series S ...
'', volume 3 (1975): pages 64–80.
*Seän M. Warner“The Patriarchs and Extra-Biblical Sources.”
'' Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 1, number 2 (June 1976): pages 50–61. * J. Maxwell Miller
“The Patriarchs and Extra-Biblical Sources: a Response.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 1, number 2 (June 1976): pages 62–66. *J. Russell Kirkland. "The Incident at Salem: A Reexamination of Gen 14:18–23." ''Studia Biblica et Theologica'', volume 7 (1977): pages 3–23. *John Tracy Luke
“Abraham and the Iron Age: Reflections on the New Patriarchal Studies.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 2, number 4 (February 1977): pages 35–47. * Peter C. Craigie. ''The Problem of War in the Old Testament'', page 9.
Grand Rapids, Michigan
Grand Rapids is a city and county seat of Kent County in the U.S. state of Michigan. At the 2020 census, the city had a population of 198,917 which ranks it as the second most-populated city in the state after Detroit. Grand Rapids is th ...
: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company is a religious publishing house based in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Founded in 1911 by Dutch American William B. Eerdmans (November 4, 1882 – April 1966) and still independently owned with William's daught ...
, 1978.
*Isaac M. Kikawada"The Unity of Genesis 12:1–9."
''Proceedings of the World Congress of Jewish Studies'', volume 1 (division A) (1973): pages 229–35. *
Terrence Malick
Terrence Frederick Malick (born November 30, 1943) is an American filmmaker. His films include ''Days of Heaven'' (1978), '' The Thin Red Line'' (1998), for which he received Academy Award nominations for Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay ...
. ''Days of Heaven
''Days of Heaven'' is a 1978 American romantic period drama film written and directed by Terrence Malick, and starring Richard Gere, Brooke Adams, Sam Shepard and Linda Manz. Set in 1916, it tells the story of Bill and Abby, lovers who travel ...
''. 1978.
*Donald J. Wiseman
Donald John Wiseman (25 October 1918 – 2 February 2010) was a biblical scholar, archaeologist and Assyriologist. He was Professor of Assyriology at the University of London from 1961 to 1982.
Early life and beliefs
Wiseman was born in Emswo ...
. "They Lived in Tents." In ''Biblical and Near Eastern Studies: Essays in Honor of William Sanford La Sor''. Edited by Gary A. Tuttle, pages 195–200. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978.
* Niels-Erik A. Andreasen. "Genesis 14 in its Near Eastern Context." In ''Scripture in Context: Essays on the Comparative Method''. Edited by Carl D. Evans, William W. Hallo
William Wolfgang Hallo (March 9, 1928 – March, 27, 2015Biblica'', volume 61 (number 1) (1980): page 69.
*George W. Coats. "The Curse in God's Blessing: Genesis 12:1–4a in the Structure and Theology of the Yahwist." In ''Die Botschaft und die Boten: Festschrift fur Hans Walter Wolff zum 70. Geburtstag''. Edited by Jörg Jeremias and L. Perlitt, pages 31–41. Neukirchen–Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1981.
* Gerhard F. Hasel. "The Meaning of the Animal Rite in Gen. 15." '' Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 6 (number 19) (1981): pages 61–78.
*Paul J. Kobelski. ''Melchizedek and Melchireša'.'' Washington, D.C.: The 
*Moshé Anbar. "Genesis 15: A Conflation of Two Deuteronomic Narratives." ''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 101 (1982): pages 39–55.
*
“Ruth and the Structure of Covenant History.”
''
"Kobelski's ''Melchizedek and Melchireša."
'' The Jewish Quarterly Review'' (new series), volume 73 (number 3) (January 1983): pages 294–96.
*Larry R. Helyer. "The Separation of Abram and Lot: Its Significance in the Patriarchal Narratives." ''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 8 (number 26) (1983): pages 77–88.
*
*
''L'Chi Lach''
In ''And You Shall Be a Blessing ...'' New York: Sounds Write Productions, 1989. *Marc Gellman. "Finding the Right Man." In ''Does God Have a Big Toe? Stories About Stories in the Bible'', pages 47–51. New York: HarperCollins, 1989. * Nahum M. Sarna. ''The JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation'', pages 88–128, 377–87. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989. *''Berit Mila in the Reform Context''. Edited by Lewis M. Barth. Berit Mila Board of Reform Judaism, 1990. * Mark E. Biddle
"The 'Endangered Ancestress' and Blessing for the Nations."
''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 109 (number 4) (Winter 1990): pages 599–611. *
"The Wilderness and Salvation History in the Hagar Story."
''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 117 (number 1) (Spring 1998): pages 23–43. *Susan Freeman. ''Teaching Jewish Virtues: Sacred Sources and Arts Activities'', pages 4–6. Springfield Township, Union County, New Jersey, Springfield, New Jersey: A.R.E. Publishing, 1999. ().
*Orson Scott Card. ''Sarah: Women of Genesis''. Salt Lake City: Shadow Mountain, 2000.
*David A. deSilva. "Why Did God Choose Abraham?" ''Bible Review'', volume 16 (number 3) (June 2000): pages 16–21, 42–44.
*Joseph A. Fitzmyer
"Melchizedek in the MT, LXX, and the NT."
''Biblica'', volume 81 (number 1) (2000): pages 63–69. *Tamara Goshen-Gottstein. “The Souls that They Made: Physical Infertility and Spiritual Fecundity.” In ''Torah of the Mothers: Contemporary Jewish Women Read Classical Jewish Texts''. Edited by Ora Wiskind Elper and Susan Handelman, pages 123–54. New York and Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2000. (; ). *Judy Klitsner. “From the Earth's Hollow Space to the Stars: Two Patriarchs and Their Non-Israelite Mentors.” In ''Torah of the Mothers: Contemporary Jewish Women Read Classical Jewish Texts''. Edited by Ora Wiskind Elper and Susan Handelman, pages 262–88. New York and Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2000. (comparison of Abraham and Melchizedek, Moses and Jethro (biblical person), Jethro). *John S. Kselman. "Genesis." In ''The HarperCollins Bible Commentary''. Edited by James Luther Mays, James L. Mays, pages 91–94. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000. *Martin McNamara
"Melchizedek: Gen 14,17–20 in the Targums, in Rabbinic and Early Christian Literature."
''Biblica'', volume 81 (number 1) (2000): pages 1–31. *Deborah W. Rooke
"Jesus as Royal Priest: Reflections on the Interpretation of the Melchizedek Tradition in Heb 7."
''Biblica'', volume 81 (number 1) (2000): pages 81–94.
*Michal Shekel. "What's in a Name?" In ''The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions''. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 57–62. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000.
*Robert Bly
"The Night Abraham Called to the Stars."
In ''The Night Abraham Called to the Stars: Poems'', page 1. New York: HarperCollins/Perennial, 2001.
*Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman. "Searching for the Patriarchs." In ''The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts'', pages 27–47. New York: Free Press (publisher), The Free Press, 2001.
*Scott Nikaido
"Hagar and Ishmael as Literary Figures: An Intertextual Study."
''Vetus Testamentum'', volume 51 (number 2) (April 2001): pages 219–42. *Tad Szulc. "Abraham: Journey of Faith." ''National Geographic (magazine), National Geographic'', volume 200 (number 6) (December 2001): pages 90–129. *Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. ''Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies'', pages 263–74. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002. *Michael Fishbane. ''The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot'', pages 18–23. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002. *Tikva Frymer-Kensky. "The Disposable Wife" and "Hagar, My Other, My Self." In ''Reading the Women of the Bible'', pages 93–98, 225–37. New York: Schocken Books, 2002. *Keith N. Grüneberg. ''Abraham, Blessing and the Nations: A Philological and Exegetical Study of Genesis 12:3 in Its Narrative Context''. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2003. *Alan Lew. ''This Is Real and You Are Completely Unprepared: The Days of Awe as a Journey of Transformation'', page 20. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 2003. *Robert Alter. ''The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary'', pages 62–84. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004. *David M. Carr
"Book Reviews: ''Abraham, Blessing and the Nations: A Philological and Exegetical Study of Genesis 12:3 in Its Narrative Context'' by Keith N. Grüneberg."
''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 123 (number 4) (Winter 2004): pages 741–44. *Marek Halter, ''Sarah''. New York: Crown Publishers, 2004. *Jon D. Levenson. "Genesis." In ''The Jewish Study Bible''. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 30–39. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. *''Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading'' Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 31–35. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005. *Jules Francis Gomes. ''The Sanctuary of Bethel and the Configuration of Israelite Identity''. De Gruyter, 2006. *Nachman Levine
“Sarah/Sodom: Birth, Destruction, and Synchronic Transaction.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 31 (number 2) (December 2006): pages 131–46. *W. Gunther Plaut. ''The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition''. Revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 88–120. New York:
''Genesis 12.''
''Poetry (magazine), Poetry'', volume 190 (number 3) (June 2007): page 201. *Suzanne A. Brody. ''Lech L'cha.'' In ''Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems'', page 64. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007. *Terence E. Fretheim. ''Abraham: Trials of Family and Faith''. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 2007. *Esther Jungreis. ''Life Is a Test'', pages 28–29, 49, 68, 130, 134, 214–15, 236. Brooklyn: Shaar Press, 2007. *James C. Okoye
“Sarah and Hagar: Genesis 16 and 21.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 32 (number 2) (December 2007): pages 163–75. *Andrei Orlov
"The Heir of Righteousness and the King of Righteousness: The Priestly Noachic Polemics in 2 Enoch and the Epistle to the Hebrews."
''The Journal of Theological Studies'' (new series), volume 58 (number 1) (April 2007): pages 45–65. (Melchizedek). *Mary Mills
"The Story of Abraham and Models of Human Identity."
''New Blackfriars'', volume 89 (number 1021) (May 2008): pages 280–99. *''The Torah: A Women's Commentary''. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea Weiss (rabbi), Andrea L. Weiss, pages 59–84. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, URJ Press, 2008. *Caryn Aviv and Karen Erlichman. "Going to and Becoming Ourselves: Transformation and Covenants in Parashat Lech Lecha (Genesis 12:1–17:27)." In ''Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible''. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 24–28. New York: New York University Press, 2009. *Gard Granerød
"Melchizedek in Hebrews 7."
''Biblica'', volume 90 (number 2) (2009): pages 188–202. *Reuven Hammer. ''Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion'', pages 17–22. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.
*Jonathan Sacks. ''Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Genesis: The Book of Beginnings'', pages 65–93. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2009.
*Carolyn J. Sharp. "Pharaoh and Abimelech as Innocents Ensnared." In ''Irony and Meaning in the Hebrew Bible'', pages 51–54. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2009.
*John H. Walton. "Genesis." In ''Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary''. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 68–90. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
*Nick Wyatt
“Circumcision and Circumstance: Male Genital Mutilation in Ancient Israel and Ugarit.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 33 (number 4) (June 2009): pages 405–31. *Bernard Gosse
“Abraham and David.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 34 (number 1) (September 2009): pages 25–31. (). *Volker Glissmann
“Genesis 14: A Diaspora Novella?”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 34 (number 1) (September 2009): pages 33–45. *Nathaniel Helfgot
"Unlocking the Riddle of Abraham the Iconoclast: A Study in the Intertextuality of 'Peshat' and 'Derash.'"
''Tradition (journal), Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought'', volume 43 (number 3) (fall 2010): pages 9–16. *Ilan Stavans and Mordecai Drache. "The Mission of Abraham 'And I will bless them.'" In ''With All Thine Heart: Love and the Bible'', pages 49–65. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2010. *Alexander Massey
“‘If male, is he circumcised?’ Covenant, Community, Compassion and Conscience.”
(2011; rev. 2019). *Dan Rickett
“Rethinking the Place and Purpose of Genesis 13.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 36 (number 1) (September 2011): pages 31–53. *Calum Carmichael. ''The Book of Numbers: A Critique of Genesis'', pages 11, 19, 27, 55. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012. *William G. Dever. ''The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect'', page 188. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2012. *Jonathan Haidt. ''The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion'', page 210. New York: Pantheon, 2012. (circumcision as tribal symbolic marking).
*Shmuel Herzfeld. "Avraham: An Evangelical Role Model." In ''Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons'', pages 12–17. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
*Chee-Chiew Lee
“Once Again: The Niphal and the Hithpael of in the Abrahamic Blessing for the Nations.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 36 (number 3) (March 2012): pages 279–96. (). *Jon D. Levenson. ''Inheriting Abraham: The Legacy of the Patriarch in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam''. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2012. *J. SerVaas Williams. ''Abraham and Sarah''. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2012. *Scott N. Morschauser
"Campaigning on Less Than a Shoe-String: An Ancient Egyptian Parallel to Abram's 'Oath' in Genesis 14.22–23."
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 38 (number 2) (December 2013): pages 127–44. *Steven J. Pahl
“Thematic Connections in Psalm 110 and Genesis 14: An Intertextual Study.”
Thesis, Ambrose University, 2013. *Stephanie Butnick
"Bas Relief Depicts Circumcision in Ancient Egypt: Relic from 2400 BCE believed to be the oldest illustration of the ritual."
''Tablet Magazine''. (June 18, 2014). *Jonathan Sacks. ''Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible'', pages 13–17. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015. *"The Hittites: Between Tradition and History." ''Biblical Archaeology Review'', volume 42 (number 2) (March/April 2016): pages 28–40, 68. *Jean-Pierre Isbouts. ''Archaeology of the Bible: The Greatest Discoveries From Genesis to the Roman Era'', pages 34–53. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, National Geographic, 2016. *Jonathan Sacks. ''Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible'', pages 15–20. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016. *Jacob Bacharach. ''The Doorposts of Your House and on Your Gates''. New York: Boni & LiveLiveright, 2017. (novel loosely retelling the story of Abraham, Sarah, and Isaac). *Shai Held. ''The Heart of Torah, Volume 1: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Genesis and Exodus'', pages 21–30. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017. *Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. ''The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary'', pages 9–11. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017. *Pekka Pitkänen
“Ancient Israelite Population Economy: Ger, Toshav, Nakhri and Karat as Settler Colonial Categories.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 42, number 2 (December 2017): pages 139–53. *Jeffrey K. Salkin. ''The JPS B'nai Mitzvah Torah Commentary'', pages 12–16. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017. *Alessandro Massa
“The European Convention on Human Rights and Ritual Male Circumcision: Religion, Family, Rights.”
(2019). *Pallant Ramsundar
“Biblical Mistranslations to 'Euphrates' and the Impact on the Borders of Israel.”
''American Journal of Biblical Theology'' (2019). *Irit Dekel, Bernhard Forchtner, and Ibrahim Efe
“Circumcising the Body: Negotiating Difference and Belonging in Germany.”
''National Identitie'' (2019). *Aren M. Wilson-Wright
"Bethel and the Persistence of El: Evidence for the Survival of El as an Independent Deity in the Jacob Cycle and 1 Kings 12:25–30."
''
Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translationHear the parashah chanted
Academy for Jewish Religion, CaliforniaAcademy for Jewish Religion, New YorkAkhlah: The Jewish Children's Learning NetworkAleph BetaAmerican Jewish University—Ziegler School of Rabbinic StudiesAscent of SafedBar-Ilan UniversityChabad.orgeparsha.comG-dcastJewish Theological SeminaryMechon HadarMiriam AflaloMyJewishLearning.comOhr SameachOzTorah, Torah from AustraliaOz Ve Shalom—Netivot ShalomPardes from JerusalemParshah PartsProfessor James L. KugelRabbi Dov LinzerRabbi Jonathan SacksRabbiShimon.comRabbi Shmuel HerzfeldReconstructionist JudaismSephardic InstituteShiur.comTeach613.org, Torah Education at Cherry HillTheTorah.comTorah from DixieTorah.orgTorahVort.comUnion for Reform JudaismUnited Synagogue of Conservative JudaismYeshivat Chovevei TorahYeshiva University
{{Book of Genesis Lech-Lecha, Abraham Weekly Torah readings from Genesis Weekly Torah readings in Cheshvan
Catholic Biblical Association
The Catholic Biblical Association of America (CBA) is an American learned society dedicated to the academic study of the Bible. The suggestion to form a permanent association of biblical scholars was made at the beginning of 1936 at a meeting in ...
of America, 1981.
*Nehama Leibowitz
Nechama Leibowitz ( he, נחמה ליבוביץ׳; September 3, 1905 – April 12, 1997 ) was a noted Israeli Bible scholar and commentator who rekindled interest in Bible study.
Biography
Nechama Leibowitz was born to an Orthodox Jewish fa ...
. ''Studies in Bereshit (Genesis)'', pages 109–57. Jerusalem: The World Zionist Organization
The World Zionist Organization ( he, הַהִסְתַּדְּרוּת הַצִּיּוֹנִית הָעוֹלָמִית; ''HaHistadrut HaTzionit Ha'Olamit''), or WZO, is a non-governmental organization that promotes Zionism. It was founded as the ...
, 1981. Reprinted as ''New Studies in the Weekly Parasha''. Lambda Publishers, 2010.
*Moshé Anbar. "Genesis 15: A Conflation of Two Deuteronomic Narratives." ''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 101 (1982): pages 39–55.
*Walter Brueggemann
Walter Brueggemann (born March 11, 1933) is an American Protestant Old Testament scholar and theologian who is widely considered one of the most influential Old Testament scholars of the last several decades. His work often focuses on the Hebrew p ...
. ''Genesis: Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching'', pages 105–62. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1982.
* Harold Fisch“Ruth and the Structure of Covenant History.”
''
Vetus Testamentum
''Vetus Testamentum'' is a quarterly academic journal covering various aspects of the Old Testament. It is published by Brill Publishers
Brill Academic Publishers (known as E. J. Brill, Koninklijke Brill, Brill ()) is a Dutch international ...
'', volume 32, number 4 (October 1982): pages 425–37. (connecting the story of Lot and Abraham in to the story of Ruth).
* David Flusser"Kobelski's ''Melchizedek and Melchireša."
'' The Jewish Quarterly Review'' (new series), volume 73 (number 3) (January 1983): pages 294–96.
*Larry R. Helyer. "The Separation of Abram and Lot: Its Significance in the Patriarchal Narratives." ''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 8 (number 26) (1983): pages 77–88.
*Adin Steinsaltz
Rabbi Adin Even-Israel Steinsaltz (11 July 19377 August 2020) ( he, עדין אבן-ישראל שטיינזלץ) was an Israeli Chabad Chasidic rabbi, teacher, philosopher, social critic, author, translator and publisher.
His '' Steinsaltz edi ...
. ''Biblical Files'', pages 12–29. New York: Basic Books, 1984.
* Phyllis Trible. "Hagar: The Desolation of Rejection." In ''Texts of Terror: Literary-Feminist Readings of Biblical Narratives'', pages 9–35. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984.
*Margaret Atwood
Margaret Eleanor Atwood (born November 18, 1939) is a Canadian poet, novelist, literary critic, essayist, teacher, environmental activist, and inventor. Since 1961, she has published 18 books of poetry, 18 novels, 11 books of non-fiction, ...
. ''The Handmaid's Tale
''The Handmaid's Tale'' is a futuristic dystopian novel by Canadian author Margaret Atwood and published in 1985. It is set in a near-future New England in a patriarchal, totalitarian theonomic state known as the Republic of Gilead, which ...
''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1986. (handmaiden plot element).
*Bo Johnson. "Who Reckoned Righteousness to Whom?" '' Svensk exegetisk årsbok'', volume 51–52 (1986–1987): pages 108–15.
* Pinchas H. Peli. ''Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture'', pages 11–14. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987.
*Debbie Friedman
Deborah Lynn "Debbie" Friedman (February 23, 1951 – January 9, 2011)Horn, JordanaBeloved US Jewish songwriter, Debbie Friedman, dies ''The Jerusalem Post'', January 9, 2011Fox, MargalitDebbie Friedman, Singer of Jewish Music, Dies at 59 ''The ...
''L'Chi Lach''
In ''And You Shall Be a Blessing ...'' New York: Sounds Write Productions, 1989. *Marc Gellman. "Finding the Right Man." In ''Does God Have a Big Toe? Stories About Stories in the Bible'', pages 47–51. New York: HarperCollins, 1989. * Nahum M. Sarna. ''The JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation'', pages 88–128, 377–87. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989. *''Berit Mila in the Reform Context''. Edited by Lewis M. Barth. Berit Mila Board of Reform Judaism, 1990. * Mark E. Biddle
"The 'Endangered Ancestress' and Blessing for the Nations."
''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 109 (number 4) (Winter 1990): pages 599–611. *
Mark S. Smith
Mark Stratton John Matthew Smith (born December 6, 1956) is an American biblical scholar, anthropologist, and professor.
Early life and education
Born in Paris to Donald Eugene Smith and Mary Elizabeth (Betty) Reichert, Smith grew up in Washing ...
. ''The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel'', pages 11, 21, 23, 101. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990.
*Aaron Wildavsky
Aaron Wildavsky (May 31, 1930 – September 4, 1993) was an American political scientist known for his pioneering work in public policy, government budgeting, and risk management.
Early years
A native of Brooklyn in New York, Wildavsky was th ...
. ''Assimilation versus Separation: Joseph the Administrator and the Politics of Religion in Biblical Israel'', pages 5–6, 15, 17–29. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1993.
* Joseph B. Soloveitchik. ''Abraham's Journey''. KTAV Publishing House, 2008. (written before 1994).
*Judith S. Antonelli. "Sarah: First Jewess." In ''In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah'', pages 27–38. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson
Jason Aronson was an American publisher of books in the field of psychotherapy. Topics dealt with in these books include child therapy, family therapy, couple therapy, object relations therapy, play therapy, depression, eating disorders, perso ...
, 1995.
* Jacob Milgrom. "Bible Versus Babel: Why did God tell Abraham to leave Mesopotamia, the most advanced civilization of its time, for the backwater region of Canaan?" ''Bible Review'', volume 11 (number 2) (April 1995).
*Naomi H. Rosenblatt and Joshua Horwitz. ''Wrestling With Angels: What Genesis Teaches Us About Our Spiritual Identity, Sexuality, and Personal Relationships'', pages 93–157. Delacorte Press, 1995.
* Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg. ''The Beginning of Desire: Reflections on Genesis'', pages 72–96. New York: Image Books/Doubleday, 1995.
* Karen Armstrong. ''In the Beginning: A New Interpretation of Genesis'', pages 53–62. New York: Knopf, 1996.
*Ellen Frankel Ellen Frankel (born 1951) was the Editor-in-Chief of the Jewish Publication Society (JPS) from 1991 until 2009, and also served as CEO of the JPS for 10 years. She retired in 2009 to pursue her own writing and scholarly projects, serving as JPS's f ...
. ''The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman's Commentary on the Torah'', pages 15–21. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.
* Lawrence A. Hoffman. ''Covenant of Blood: Circumcision and Gender in Rabbinic Judaism''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
* W. Gunther Plaut. ''The Haftarah Commentary'', pages 23–32. New York: UAHC Press, 1996.
*Walter Wangerin, Jr.
Walter Wangerin Jr. (February 13, 1944 – August 5, 2021) was an American author and educator best known for his religious novels and children's books.
Biography
Wangerin was born in Portland, Oregon, where his father was a Lutheran pastor. He ...
''The Book of God'', pages 13–25. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 1996.
*Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. ''Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities'', pages 19–24. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
*Thomas B. Dozeman"The Wilderness and Salvation History in the Hagar Story."
''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 117 (number 1) (Spring 1998): pages 23–43. *Susan Freeman. ''Teaching Jewish Virtues: Sacred Sources and Arts Activities'', pages 4–6. Springfield Township, Union County, New Jersey, Springfield, New Jersey: A.R.E. Publishing, 1999. ().
*Orson Scott Card. ''Sarah: Women of Genesis''. Salt Lake City: Shadow Mountain, 2000.
*David A. deSilva. "Why Did God Choose Abraham?" ''Bible Review'', volume 16 (number 3) (June 2000): pages 16–21, 42–44.
*Joseph A. Fitzmyer"Melchizedek in the MT, LXX, and the NT."
''Biblica'', volume 81 (number 1) (2000): pages 63–69. *Tamara Goshen-Gottstein. “The Souls that They Made: Physical Infertility and Spiritual Fecundity.” In ''Torah of the Mothers: Contemporary Jewish Women Read Classical Jewish Texts''. Edited by Ora Wiskind Elper and Susan Handelman, pages 123–54. New York and Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2000. (; ). *Judy Klitsner. “From the Earth's Hollow Space to the Stars: Two Patriarchs and Their Non-Israelite Mentors.” In ''Torah of the Mothers: Contemporary Jewish Women Read Classical Jewish Texts''. Edited by Ora Wiskind Elper and Susan Handelman, pages 262–88. New York and Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2000. (comparison of Abraham and Melchizedek, Moses and Jethro (biblical person), Jethro). *John S. Kselman. "Genesis." In ''The HarperCollins Bible Commentary''. Edited by James Luther Mays, James L. Mays, pages 91–94. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000. *Martin McNamara
"Melchizedek: Gen 14,17–20 in the Targums, in Rabbinic and Early Christian Literature."
''Biblica'', volume 81 (number 1) (2000): pages 1–31. *Deborah W. Rooke
"Jesus as Royal Priest: Reflections on the Interpretation of the Melchizedek Tradition in Heb 7."
''Biblica'', volume 81 (number 1) (2000): pages 81–94.
*Michal Shekel. "What's in a Name?" In ''The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions''. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 57–62. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000.
*Robert Bly"The Night Abraham Called to the Stars."
In ''The Night Abraham Called to the Stars: Poems'', page 1. New York: HarperCollins/Perennial, 2001.
*Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman. "Searching for the Patriarchs." In ''The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts'', pages 27–47. New York: Free Press (publisher), The Free Press, 2001.
*Scott Nikaido"Hagar and Ishmael as Literary Figures: An Intertextual Study."
''Vetus Testamentum'', volume 51 (number 2) (April 2001): pages 219–42. *Tad Szulc. "Abraham: Journey of Faith." ''National Geographic (magazine), National Geographic'', volume 200 (number 6) (December 2001): pages 90–129. *Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. ''Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies'', pages 263–74. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002. *Michael Fishbane. ''The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot'', pages 18–23. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002. *Tikva Frymer-Kensky. "The Disposable Wife" and "Hagar, My Other, My Self." In ''Reading the Women of the Bible'', pages 93–98, 225–37. New York: Schocken Books, 2002. *Keith N. Grüneberg. ''Abraham, Blessing and the Nations: A Philological and Exegetical Study of Genesis 12:3 in Its Narrative Context''. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2003. *Alan Lew. ''This Is Real and You Are Completely Unprepared: The Days of Awe as a Journey of Transformation'', page 20. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 2003. *Robert Alter. ''The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary'', pages 62–84. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004. *David M. Carr
"Book Reviews: ''Abraham, Blessing and the Nations: A Philological and Exegetical Study of Genesis 12:3 in Its Narrative Context'' by Keith N. Grüneberg."
''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 123 (number 4) (Winter 2004): pages 741–44. *Marek Halter, ''Sarah''. New York: Crown Publishers, 2004. *Jon D. Levenson. "Genesis." In ''The Jewish Study Bible''. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 30–39. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. *''Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading'' Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 31–35. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005. *Jules Francis Gomes. ''The Sanctuary of Bethel and the Configuration of Israelite Identity''. De Gruyter, 2006. *Nachman Levine
“Sarah/Sodom: Birth, Destruction, and Synchronic Transaction.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 31 (number 2) (December 2006): pages 131–46. *W. Gunther Plaut. ''The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition''. Revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 88–120. New York:
Union for Reform Judaism
The Union for Reform Judaism (URJ), known as the Union of American Hebrew Congregations (UAHC) until 2003, founded in 1873 by Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise, is the congregational arm of Reform Judaism in North America. The other two arms establishe ...
, 2006.
*James Kugel, James L. Kugel. ''How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now'', pages 30, 39, 89–106, 119–32, 146, 159, 301, 356, 421, 435, 649. New York: Free Press, 2007.
*David Rosenberg (poet), David Rosenberg. ''Abraham: The First Historical Biography''. New York: Basic Books, 2006.
*David Biespiel''Genesis 12.''
''Poetry (magazine), Poetry'', volume 190 (number 3) (June 2007): page 201. *Suzanne A. Brody. ''Lech L'cha.'' In ''Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems'', page 64. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007. *Terence E. Fretheim. ''Abraham: Trials of Family and Faith''. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 2007. *Esther Jungreis. ''Life Is a Test'', pages 28–29, 49, 68, 130, 134, 214–15, 236. Brooklyn: Shaar Press, 2007. *James C. Okoye
“Sarah and Hagar: Genesis 16 and 21.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 32 (number 2) (December 2007): pages 163–75. *Andrei Orlov
"The Heir of Righteousness and the King of Righteousness: The Priestly Noachic Polemics in 2 Enoch and the Epistle to the Hebrews."
''The Journal of Theological Studies'' (new series), volume 58 (number 1) (April 2007): pages 45–65. (Melchizedek). *Mary Mills
"The Story of Abraham and Models of Human Identity."
''New Blackfriars'', volume 89 (number 1021) (May 2008): pages 280–99. *''The Torah: A Women's Commentary''. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea Weiss (rabbi), Andrea L. Weiss, pages 59–84. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, URJ Press, 2008. *Caryn Aviv and Karen Erlichman. "Going to and Becoming Ourselves: Transformation and Covenants in Parashat Lech Lecha (Genesis 12:1–17:27)." In ''Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible''. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 24–28. New York: New York University Press, 2009. *Gard Granerød
"Melchizedek in Hebrews 7."
''Biblica'', volume 90 (number 2) (2009): pages 188–202. *Reuven Hammer. ''Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion'', pages 17–22. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.
*Jonathan Sacks. ''Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Genesis: The Book of Beginnings'', pages 65–93. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2009.
*Carolyn J. Sharp. "Pharaoh and Abimelech as Innocents Ensnared." In ''Irony and Meaning in the Hebrew Bible'', pages 51–54. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2009.
*John H. Walton. "Genesis." In ''Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary''. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 68–90. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
*Nick Wyatt“Circumcision and Circumstance: Male Genital Mutilation in Ancient Israel and Ugarit.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 33 (number 4) (June 2009): pages 405–31. *Bernard Gosse
“Abraham and David.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 34 (number 1) (September 2009): pages 25–31. (). *Volker Glissmann
“Genesis 14: A Diaspora Novella?”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 34 (number 1) (September 2009): pages 33–45. *Nathaniel Helfgot
"Unlocking the Riddle of Abraham the Iconoclast: A Study in the Intertextuality of 'Peshat' and 'Derash.'"
''Tradition (journal), Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought'', volume 43 (number 3) (fall 2010): pages 9–16. *Ilan Stavans and Mordecai Drache. "The Mission of Abraham 'And I will bless them.'" In ''With All Thine Heart: Love and the Bible'', pages 49–65. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2010. *Alexander Massey
“‘If male, is he circumcised?’ Covenant, Community, Compassion and Conscience.”
(2011; rev. 2019). *Dan Rickett
“Rethinking the Place and Purpose of Genesis 13.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 36 (number 1) (September 2011): pages 31–53. *Calum Carmichael. ''The Book of Numbers: A Critique of Genesis'', pages 11, 19, 27, 55. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012. *William G. Dever. ''The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect'', page 188. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2012. *Jonathan Haidt. ''The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion'', page 210. New York: Pantheon, 2012. (circumcision as tribal symbolic marking).
*Shmuel Herzfeld. "Avraham: An Evangelical Role Model." In ''Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons'', pages 12–17. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
*Chee-Chiew Lee“Once Again: The Niphal and the Hithpael of in the Abrahamic Blessing for the Nations.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 36 (number 3) (March 2012): pages 279–96. (). *Jon D. Levenson. ''Inheriting Abraham: The Legacy of the Patriarch in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam''. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2012. *J. SerVaas Williams. ''Abraham and Sarah''. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2012. *Scott N. Morschauser
"Campaigning on Less Than a Shoe-String: An Ancient Egyptian Parallel to Abram's 'Oath' in Genesis 14.22–23."
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 38 (number 2) (December 2013): pages 127–44. *Steven J. Pahl
“Thematic Connections in Psalm 110 and Genesis 14: An Intertextual Study.”
Thesis, Ambrose University, 2013. *Stephanie Butnick
"Bas Relief Depicts Circumcision in Ancient Egypt: Relic from 2400 BCE believed to be the oldest illustration of the ritual."
''Tablet Magazine''. (June 18, 2014). *Jonathan Sacks. ''Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible'', pages 13–17. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015. *"The Hittites: Between Tradition and History." ''Biblical Archaeology Review'', volume 42 (number 2) (March/April 2016): pages 28–40, 68. *Jean-Pierre Isbouts. ''Archaeology of the Bible: The Greatest Discoveries From Genesis to the Roman Era'', pages 34–53. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, National Geographic, 2016. *Jonathan Sacks. ''Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible'', pages 15–20. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016. *Jacob Bacharach. ''The Doorposts of Your House and on Your Gates''. New York: Boni & LiveLiveright, 2017. (novel loosely retelling the story of Abraham, Sarah, and Isaac). *Shai Held. ''The Heart of Torah, Volume 1: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Genesis and Exodus'', pages 21–30. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017. *Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. ''The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary'', pages 9–11. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017. *Pekka Pitkänen
“Ancient Israelite Population Economy: Ger, Toshav, Nakhri and Karat as Settler Colonial Categories.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 42, number 2 (December 2017): pages 139–53. *Jeffrey K. Salkin. ''The JPS B'nai Mitzvah Torah Commentary'', pages 12–16. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017. *Alessandro Massa
“The European Convention on Human Rights and Ritual Male Circumcision: Religion, Family, Rights.”
(2019). *Pallant Ramsundar
“Biblical Mistranslations to 'Euphrates' and the Impact on the Borders of Israel.”
''American Journal of Biblical Theology'' (2019). *Irit Dekel, Bernhard Forchtner, and Ibrahim Efe
“Circumcising the Body: Negotiating Difference and Belonging in Germany.”
''National Identitie'' (2019). *Aren M. Wilson-Wright
"Bethel and the Persistence of El: Evidence for the Survival of El as an Independent Deity in the Jacob Cycle and 1 Kings 12:25–30."
''
Journal of Biblical Literature
The ''Journal of Biblical Literature'' (''JBL'') is one of three academic journals published by the Society of Biblical Literature (SBL). First published in 1881, ''JBL'' is the flagship journal of the field. ''JBL'' is published quarterly and incl ...
'', volume 138, number 4 (2019): pages 705–20.
External links
Texts
Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation
Commentaries
Academy for Jewish Religion, California
{{Book of Genesis Lech-Lecha, Abraham Weekly Torah readings from Genesis Weekly Torah readings in Cheshvan