Lebor na hUidre

The manuscript known as Lebor na hUidre (English translation: Book of the Dun Cow) is the oldest extant written in Gaelic (Irish), and the texts included therein recount Irish history through an eschatological lens. The Christian authors who contributed wrote about God’s intervention throughout the island’s history and attempted to understand His larger plan for Ireland.The authors recognized paganism as a part of Irish history but emphasized God’s influence on the mortal, pagan world in order to situate the Christianization of Ireland within the wider context of the spread of Christianity across Western Europe. /nowiki> Written in the 11^th and 12^th centuries, the inclusion of secular texts is also suggested to be politically motivated, as the scribes were writing in response to the sociopolitical issues that affected them during the time of production, such as the internecine familial strife amongst provinces, and the eventual external strife between the native population against the Danes and Norse.

History

Prior to the Norman invasion in the second half of the 11th century, Ireland maintained cultural and political autonomy while still taking influence from the Roman empire through trade, the adoption of Christianity, and by extension, Latin, because of their location outside the edge of its western border. Although Ireland never came under foreign rule during this time, missionaries from the continent had introduced the indigenous Gaelic populations to Christianity beginning in the 5th century. Prior to Lebor na hUidre, Irish manuscripts were written mostly in Latin with minimal Old or Middle Irish vernacular. This changed during the 11th and 12th centuries once the Irish cleric authors of LU purposefully composed most of the manuscript’s text in the vernacular but still included some Latin; thereafter, numerous Irish manuscripts came to be authored mostly in Middle Irish, rather than Latin, such as the Book of Leinster and the Yellow Book of Lecan, due to the influence of LU.

Given that Christianity was well integrated and accepted across Ireland by the eleventh and twelfth centuries, scholars have proposed one of the purposes of Lebor na hUidre was to legitimize the prestige of the powerful Irish families that ruled over different provinces across Ireland. During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the Irish noble class was composed of royal families. Scribes came from this class, both secular and religious (bards and monks), which was to the mutual benefit of all parties as scribes could grant importance to their families in Irish history, cementing their influence. Monasteries in which scribes lived and worked were protected by the families as a result. The monastery of Clonmacnoise, where Lebor na hUidre was authored, was located at the geographic and political center of Ireland, where the Shannon River and the east-west esker ridges left by retreating glaciers intersect.This meant it was right on the border of the provinces of Connacht and Meath, not far from Leinster and Munster. Perhaps the founder of Clonmacnoise, St. Ciaran, built the monastery there intentionally, but in any case its strategic location placed the community at the center of political conflict. As Ireland did not have a centralized government, powerful families controlled different provinces in Ireland, creating chiefdoms. During these internecine conflicts that were common during the 11^th and 12^th centuries, such as the Munster-Ulster War of 1090-1103, religious institutions, like Clonmacnoise, were targeted by other powerful families outside of Connacht, such as the O’Brien’s in 1092.

At the time of this war, Clonmacnoise was in the O’Connor province, ruled by Rory O’Connor, the presumptive king of Connacht. But after he was blinded and captured by the O’Flaherty’s, O’Brien saw it as a perfect opportunity to spread his influence within and beyond Connacht, as O’Connor’s powerful military and political power was what limited his conquests before. This was a devastating blow to the O’Connor family, as rather than accepting submission, O’Brien replaced the O’Connor’s with a small family from southern Connacht to take over the province. This also was damaging to the relationship between the O’Connor’s and the monks at Clonmacnoise, as the family and the monastery had long-lasting local ties to each other. As a result, Máel Muire (one of the scribes that authored LU, popularly known as “M”) began to gather material for the manuscript during these difficult times and proceeded to document it on vellum. Such strife and violence between families and later, between the native population and invaders, such as the Danes and Norse, had been a constant feature of life since the monastery’s founding. Conflict resulted in ample destruction, but also, as shown by M, inspired some of the allegorical content within Lebor na hUidre.

The Authors of Lebor na hUidre: A, M, and H

The manuscript is thought to be the work of three scribes, whose handwriting was distinguished by Richard Irvine Best in 1912 and identified with the letters ''A'', ''M'' and ''H''.

The authors of Lebor na hUidre, known as A, M, and H, were all monks who lived at Clonmacnoise, and their authorship has been identified based on the different intentions each brother had for the manuscript. A is regarded as the original author, but M (later found to be Máel Muire, directly related to the mBocht family and son of Celechar Mugdornach, bishop of Clonmacoise who died in 1067) was the scribe who dedicated the most time to LU. H, although included as one of the authors, was more of an interpolator, and evidence has suggested that at least eight scribes could have operated under the guise of “H.” Although M only completed three full stories in LU, he also finished two of the stories that A began, ''Fis Adamnan'' and ''Tain Bo Cualingne''.As it currently stands, A contributed to 12 percent of the manuscript, M wrote 60 percent, and H added an additional 28 percent to the overall content. M and H altered A’s plans for the primary focus of LU, such as Christian hagiography, genealogy, and poetry, by including pre-Christian mythological and secular content, too.But, although M and H were responsible for adding secular and pagan mythology in LU, they contributed more ecclesiastical texts than they did otherwise. For example, the only three stories that were entirely authored by M, from start to finish, were Christian inspired. Additionally, H was given their label because of their common use of homilies within the manuscript. There are several indications that M traveled to different monasteries to work with other scribes, thanks to his familial and political connections, where he would have had access to manuscripts relevant to the aims of Lebor na hUidre, but it is assumed that the entire manuscript was completed at Clonmacnoise by Dr. Hans Oskamp, a former researcher of Celtic Studies at the Dublin Institute.

A and M are believed to be contemporary. A began the manuscript and wrote the opening pages of several of the texts, which were continued by M, who Best identified as Máel Muire mac Céilechair meic Cuinn na mBocht, based on matching the handwriting with two marginal '' probationes pennae'' or pen tests, in which the scribe wrote his name. A much later note elsewhere in the manuscript names Máel Muire as the person who "wrote and compiled this book from divers books". His murder by Vikings at Clonmacnoise is recorded in the ''Annals of the Four Masters'' in 1106, giving us a latest possible date and location for the main body of the manuscript. Some time later, ''H'' (named for his addition of two homilies) added a number of new texts and passages, sometimes over erased portions of the original, sometimes on new leaves. Based on orthography and an English loanword, Gearóid Mac Eoin concludes that H wrote in the late 12th or early 13th century.

After the monastery of Clonmacnoise was broken up, the manuscript came into the possession of the O'Donnell dynasty of Donegal who held it until 1359, when it and the lost ''Leabhar Gearr'' were used to ransom members of the clan who had been taken prisoner by Cathal Óg Ó Conchobhair Sligigh (d. 3 November 1362). Áed Ruad O'Donnell recovered the manuscript in 1470, and it remained in Donegal at least until 1631, when the compilation of the ''Annals of the Four Masters'' was completed. Its location is unknown until 1837, when it was part of a collection owned by Messrs. Hodges & Smith of College Green, Dublin, and was cited by George Petrie in an essay on the History and Antiquities of Tara Hill. The Hodges & Smith collection, 227 manuscripts in all, was purchased by the Royal Irish Academy in 1844.

Joseph O'Longan's lithographic facsimile of the manuscript was published by the RIA in 1870. A diplomatic edition by R. I. Best and Osborn Bergin , with the three hands distinguished by different typefaces, was published in 1929. Digital scans of the pages at the Royal Irish Academy have been published on the web by ISOS (Irish Script on Screen).

Contents

The manuscript’s various texts range from well-known legends of pre-Christian Ireland, to cautionary tales of Irish kings who rejected baptism and consequently received the punishment of God. In the case of the latter, often the pagan non-believer repented after a period in hell, or he benefited from divine intervention in the form of St. Patrick, or other clerics, who visited the king and urged him to convert or face damnation. Such example of these stories would be ''Siaburcharpat Con Culaind''. Some of these texts were also written to establish false genealogy between contemporary kings and kings from the past, to assert royal inheritance of provinces. Other stories sought to demonstrate the ultimate judgment of Christ. In one such story (''Scél Tuain meic Cairill''), the descendants of the Sera Clan, who believed in God, enjoyed divine favor, while the pagan descendants of the Nemid Clan suffered both on earth and in hell. The authors also borrowed from pagan traditions in allegories of Paradise and Hell, utilizing the pagan concept of the “Otherworld” to show that even supernatural beings preferred the adoption of a Christian order, such as ''Echtra Condla Chaím''. The manuscript also contains stories of other important figures in Irish history, pagan and Christian, like ''Sex Aetates Mundi''. Additionally, there are stories of Christian heroes who experienced challenging voyages to test their piety to show trusting in God’s plan was far more rewarding than giving in to earthly temptations (''Immram Curaig Maíle Dúin'' (although it is suggested the original was written in either the 8^th or 9^th century), ''Aided Echach maic Maíreda'', and ''Imram Brain meic Febail''Toner, “History and Salvation in Lebor na hUidre,” 147-150.).

The remaining leaves of the manuscript contain the following texts, in various states of preservation:

Notes on known alternative versions and copies of the tales in the text are given in

Texts from the original manuscript

*'' Sex aetates mundi'' The Six Ages of the World", incomplete
*'' Lebor Bretnach'' The British Book", an Irish translation of the ''Historia Brittonum'', incomplete
*'' Amra Coluim Chille'' The Eulogy of Columba", a heavily annotated version of the 7th-century poem by Dallán Forgaill
*''Scél Tuain meic Cairill do Finnen Maige Bile'' The Story Tuan mac Cairill told to Finnian of Moville", in which the history of the invasions of Ireland is related by a survivor of the first invasion (Tuan mac Cairill) to Finnian of Moville , incomplete
*''Dá brón flatha nime'' The Two Sorrows of the Kingdom of Heaven", incomplete
*'' Mesca Ulad'' The Intoxication of the Ulstermen", incomplete
*''Táin bó Dartada'' The Driving of Dartaid's Cattle", opening four lines only
*''Táin Bó Flidhais'' The Driving of Fliodhais' Cattle", incomplete
*'' Immram curaig Mail Dúin'' Voyage of Máel Dúin's currach" incomplete)
*'' Fís Adomnáin'' The Vision of Adomnán", a work of vision literature attributed to the 7th-century Irish saint Adomnán
*'' Tucait innarba na nDessi i mMumain ocus aided Chormaic'' The Cause of the Expulsion of the Déisi into Munster and the Death of Cormac mac Airt", known as ''"The Expulsion of the Déisi"''
*''Táin Bó Cúailnge'' The Cattle Raid of Cooley", the oldest version of the central epic of the Ulster Cycle, incomplete, contains passages interpolated by H
*''Togail bruidne Dá Derga'' The Destruction of Dá Derga's Hostel", a tale of the 1st-century king Conaire Mór, incomplete, contains passages interpolated by H
*''Fled Bricrenn'' Bricriu's Feast", incomplete, contains passages interpolated by H
*''Siaburchapat Con Culaind'' Cúchulainn's Phantom Chariot", a tale of Saint Patrick, who raises Cúchulainn from hell to convince king Lóegaire mac Néill to convert to Christianity, contains passages interpolated by H
*''Fástini Airt meic Cuind ocus a chretem'' The prophesy of Art mac Cuinn and his faith , in which the 2nd-century king Art mac Cuinn is said to have foreseen the coming of Christianity
*'' Echtra Condla Chaim meic Cuind Chetchathaig'' The adventure of Connla the Beautiful, son of Conn of the Hundred Battles", in which the Connla the Ruddy is lured to the otherworld by a fairy woman
*''Cethri Arda in Domain'' The Four-Quarters of the World", incomplete
*''Imram Brain mac Febail'' The Voyage of Bran son of Febal", a fantastic voyage tale, incomplete
*''Tochmarc Emire'' The Wooing of Emer", contains passages interpolated by H
*''Compert Con Culainn'' The conception of Cúchulainn", copied from the lost Book of Druimm Snechta, contains passages interpolated by H
*''Tochmarc Étaíne'' The wooing of Étaín", a mythological tale featuring Aengus and Midir of the Tuatha Dé Danann, incomplete
*'' Compert Mongáin'' The conception of Mongán", a tale of a legendary prince, incomplete
*''Scel asa mberar combad hé Find mac Cumaill Mongáin ocus aní día fil aided Fothaid Airgdig'' The story by which it is inferred that Mongán was Fionn mac Cumhaill, and the reason for the death of Fothad Airgthech"*''Scél Mongáin'' The story of Mongán"*''Tucait baile Mongáin'' The Cause of the Vision of Mongán"*''Inna hinada hi filet cind erred Ulad'' The places where the heads of the heroes of Ulster are", a poem

Texts added by scribe H

*''Scéla laí brátha'' Tidings of the Day of Judgement"*''Scéla na esergi'' Tidings of the Resurrection"*''Aided Nath Í ocus a adnacol'' The Death of Nath Í and his burial", a tale of the 5th-century king, Nath Í mac Fiachrach
*''Aided Echach meic Maíreda'' The Death of Eochaid mac Maíreda", a mythological tale of the origin of Lough Neagh
*'' Fotha catha Cnucha'' The Cause of the Battle of Knock", a tale concerning the birth of Fionn mac Cumhaill
*''Serglige Con Culainn'' The Wasting Sickness of Cúchulainn", copied from the lost Yellow Book of Slane
*''Senchas na relec'' The History of the Burial Places", an account of the resting places of a number of Irish kings
*''Genemain Áeda Sláne'' The Birth of Áed Sláine" a tale of the 6th-century king, Áed Sláine
*''De genelogia Con Culaind'' The Genealogy of Cúchulainn"*''Cath Cairnd Chonaill ria Diarmait mac Aeda Sláni for Guari Adni'' The Battle of Carn Conaill between Diarmait son of Áed Sláine and Guaire Aidne , a tale from the Cycle of the Kings)
*''Comthoth Lóegairi co cretim ocus a aided'' The conversion of Lóegaire to the faith and his death", a tale of Saint Patrick

References

Editions

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**HTML e-text via CELT
Corpus of Electronic Texts Edition

Manuscripts

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External links

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* , translations of the majority of the texts

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lebor Na Huidre
1100s books
12th-century manuscripts
Irish manuscripts
Early Irish literature
Literary illuminated manuscripts
Irish texts
Irish-language literature
Táin Bó Cúailnge
Royal Irish Academy Library
Medieval literature