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''Lasioglossum leucozonium'' (Schrank, 1781), also known as ''Lasioglossum similis'', is a widespread solitary sweat bee found in North America, Europe, Asia, and parts of northern Africa. While now a common bee in North America, population genetic analysis has shown that it is actually an introduced species in this region. This population was most likely founded by a single female bee.


Taxonomy and phylogeny

''L. leucozonium'' is part of the subfamily
Halictinae Within the insect order Hymenoptera, the Halictinae are the largest, most diverse, and most recently diverged of the four halictid subfamilies. They comprise over 2400 bee species belonging to the five taxonomic tribes Augochlorini, Thrinchost ...
, of the
Hymenoptera Hymenoptera is a large order of insects, comprising the sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants. Over 150,000 living species of Hymenoptera have been described, in addition to over 2,000 extinct ones. Many of the species are parasitic. Females typic ...
family
Halictidae Halictidae is the second-largest family of bees (clade Anthophila) with nearly 4,500 species. Halictid species are an extremely diverse group that can vary greatly in appearance. These bees occur all over the world and are found on every continen ...
. The largest, most diverse and recently diverged of the four halictid subfamilies,
Halictinae Within the insect order Hymenoptera, the Halictinae are the largest, most diverse, and most recently diverged of the four halictid subfamilies. They comprise over 2400 bee species belonging to the five taxonomic tribes Augochlorini, Thrinchost ...
(sweat bees) is made up of five tribes of which ''L. leucozonium'' is part of Halictini, which contains over 2000 species. Genus ''
Lasioglossum The sweat bee genus ''Lasioglossum'' is the largest of all bee genera, containing over 1700 species in numerous subgenera worldwide.Gibbs, J., et al. (2012)Phylogeny of halictine bees supports a shared origin of eusociality for ''Halictus'' and ...
'' is informally divided into two series: the ''Lasioglossum'' series and the ''Hemihalictus''.Michener, C.D. (2000). The Bees of the World. Johns Hopkins University Press. 913. ''L. leucozonium'' is a part of the Old World series and is most closely related to ''L. callizonium'', ''L. zonulum'', and ''L. majus.'' However, there is genetic variation within the species depending on its location.Danforth, B. N. (1999). "Phylogeny of the bee genus Lasioglossum (Hymenoptera: Halictidae) based on mitochondrial COI sequence data" (PDF). Systematic Entomology 24, 377-393. Retrieved fro


Description and identification

While occasionally compared to its close relative, ''L. zonulum'', ''L. leucozonium'' has distinct features that separate it from other ''Lasioglossum'' species. There are also differences in appearance between females and males. Additionally, its eye has been studied in relation to the nocturnal bee ''
Megalopta genalis ''Megalopta genalis'' is a species of the family Halictidae, otherwise known as the sweat bees. The bee is native to Central and South America.Greiner, B., et al. (2004)Neural organisation in the first optic ganglion of the nocturnal bee ''Me ...
''.


Females

Female ''L. leucozonium'' are recognizable by their rough and relatively short propodeal dorsal areas. The smooth surface of these areas has horizontal stripes which are divided in the middle, which is a unique characteristic of Eastern United States ''Lasioglossum'' species, a feature shared only with ''L. zonulum''. Its dull, grainy first metasomal
tergum A ''tergum'' (Latin for "the back"; plural ''terga'', associated adjective tergal) is the dorsal ('upper') portion of an arthropod segment other than the head. The anterior edge is called the 'base' and posterior edge is called the 'apex' or 'ma ...
has well-developed punctures separated by 1-1.5 times their width, and its vertex behind the
ocelli A simple eye (sometimes called a pigment pit) refers to a form of eye or an optical arrangement composed of a single lens and without an elaborate retina such as occurs in most vertebrates. In this sense "simple eye" is distinct from a multi-le ...
has stripes. In comparison to ''L. zonulum'', the pronotal angle of ''L. leucozonium'' projects out less but is still obtuse. The
pronotum The prothorax is the foremost of the three segments in the thorax of an insect, and bears the first pair of legs. Its principal sclerites (exoskeletal plates) are the pronotum ( dorsal), the prosternum (ventral), and the propleuron ( lateral) on ...
has a well-developed dorsal edge and an incomplete lateral ridge, of which the lower part is unnoticeable and broadly rounded, divided by a slanted groove. With a rounded lip on the
scutum The ''scutum'' (; plural ''scuta'') was a type of shield used among Italic peoples in antiquity, most notably by the army of ancient Rome starting about the fourth century BC. The Romans adopted it when they switched from the military formatio ...
of their middle thoracic segment raised from the
pronotum The prothorax is the foremost of the three segments in the thorax of an insect, and bears the first pair of legs. Its principal sclerites (exoskeletal plates) are the pronotum ( dorsal), the prosternum (ventral), and the propleuron ( lateral) on ...
, it has a propodeal triangle that is well defined by a
carinate Carinate is a shape in pottery, glassware and artistic design usually applied to amphorae or vases. The shape is defined by the joining of a rounded base to the sides of an inward sloping vessel. This design is seen in ancient cultures such as ...
rim. It has an elongated head, a shiny face, and an evenly rounded, slightly protruding, and extremely grainy supraclypeal area that is uniformly and densely spotted with punctures separated by their width or less. It also has a somewhat granulated and shiny clypeus, protruding below the eyes, with a surface that has a lot of punctures without a groove in the middle. The distance between its lateral ocelli is greater than that between the lateral ocelli and the eye. While the lateral edge of its metasomal tergum II is only slightly wavy, the distal keel of its
labrum Labrum Latin, defined as "having the edge" * Labrum (architecture), a large water-filled vessel or basin with an overhanging lip * Labrum (arthropod mouthpart), a flap-like structure in front of the mouth in almost all extant Euarthropoda * Bron ...
is somewhat broad in the front and gradually narrows moving back to the tip. Its moderately shiny mesoscutum has a microscopically patterned surface, and its scutellum has nearly uniform punctures like that of the mesoscutum. There is white to yellowish white hair on the head and thorax, though the thorax has some brown hairs on the scutellum. The slightly separated hind tibial hair is mostly pale yellowish brown while the dorsal hairs are light brown. On the metasomal tergum I and terga II-IV, the hair is white with a band of hair on terga II-IV and elongated hairs scattered over the anterior surface of tergum I. Its mesoscutal hairs are moderately dense and seem feathery, and its wing membrane has a glassy, translucent appearance.


Males

A male ''L. leucozonium'' is distinguished by its rounded clypeus, its ventrally narrowed head, its yellow back of the tarsus of its middle and hind legs, its wrinkled propodeal dorsal surface, its dense, flattened hair patch on the posterior edge of sternum V, and its inverted V-shaped patch of hair on sternum VI. In general, the males are similar to the females. However, other differences include rounded gena that are wider than the eye; a broadly rounded clypeal surface; a labrum with rounded and slightly developed distal processes, an evenly rounded bottom area with a small circular depression in the middle, and somewhat developed depressions on its sides; and a short mandible. The shiny clypeus is a little grainy with uniform punctures and clypeal spots. The front of the tarsus is entirely dark while the middle and hind back of the tarsus are yellowish white except for the dark distal edges. The hairs on sternum IV are erect and elongated without a noticeable pattern. Its sternum VII is somewhat smaller and slender, its sternum VIII does not have a bulge in the middle, and its sternal disc is small and narrow. With respect to genitalia, the base is moderately short with a gonostylus that is large, flat, and rounded at the tip. There is no membranous lobe that is turned backwards, but there is volsella with prominent lateral ridges.


Eye

''L. leucozonium'' fly relatively fast, meaning they must rely on their compound eyes for orientation and foraging, but only in bright light. Their eyes contain over 3,000 facets with a maximum diameter of 20 
µm The micrometre ( international spelling as used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures; SI symbol: μm) or micrometer ( American spelling), also commonly known as a micron, is a unit of length in the International System of Uni ...
. With a 41-µm-thick cornea consisting of a
convex Convex or convexity may refer to: Science and technology * Convex lens, in optics Mathematics * Convex set, containing the whole line segment that joins points ** Convex polygon, a polygon which encloses a convex set of points ** Convex polyto ...
inner and outer
cornea The cornea is the transparent front part of the eye that covers the iris, pupil, and anterior chamber. Along with the anterior chamber and lens, the cornea refracts light, accounting for approximately two-thirds of the eye's total optical powe ...
, it has slightly developed and fused corneal bulges. Its
lamina Lamina may refer to: Science and technology * Planar lamina, a two-dimensional planar closed surface with mass and density, in mathematics * Laminar flow, (or streamline flow) occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers, with no disruption betwee ...
has no branching and only its L2 and L4-fiber types are spread laterally.


Distribution and habitat

''L. leucozonium'' is found in open habitats, normally on sandy or chalky soil, though it is also more rarely found on heavy clay. As a
holarctic The Holarctic realm is a biogeographic realm that comprises the majority of habitats found throughout the continents in the Northern Hemisphere. It corresponds to the floristic Boreal Kingdom. It includes both the Nearctic zoogeographical regio ...
bee, it can be found from
Wisconsin Wisconsin () is a state in the upper Midwestern United States. Wisconsin is the 25th-largest state by total area and the 20th-most populous. It is bordered by Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michi ...
to
New Jersey New Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware ...
up to
Cape Breton Island Cape Breton Island (french: link=no, île du Cap-Breton, formerly '; gd, Ceap Breatainn or '; mic, Unamaꞌki) is an island on the Atlantic coast of North America and part of the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. The island accounts for 18. ...
in North America, as well as throughout Europe. Its nests can sometimes be found in aggregations, although it is a solitary bee.


Nest structure

Created by one to two females, the nest of ''L. leucozonium'' is made in flat to slightly inclined light soil in conditions that are sparsely vegetated or have short grass. Descending vertically, the main tunnel has cells at the end of short side tunnels. Nests can have 8 to 15 cells per female.


Colony cycle

In North America, females and males are active around the same time; they are typically most active between the beginning of May and mid-August. Females are most active in early June, while males are most active in late July and August.


Development and reproduction

''L. leucozonium'' only produces a single generation per year. The cells of a nest fosters a sexual
brood Brood may refer to: Nature * Brood, a collective term for offspring * Brooding, the incubation of bird eggs by their parents * Bee brood, the young of a beehive * Individual broods of North American Periodical Cicadas: ** Brood X, the largest b ...
within the same year they are created. After the offspring mature, they mate and then enter hibernation. While there is only a single generation in a year, it has two annual exits of female, one at the beginning where females make the nests and mate, and the other after the brood leaves to mate.


Behavior and ecology

''L. leucozonium'' is a diurnal, ground-nesting bee. It hibernates during the winter, during which it stays underground. Females are singly-mated at this time.


Nesting biology

A mining bee, ''L. leucozonium'' digs into the ground to make its nests. One to two females help create the nest, and for each female, 8 to 15 cells are made. Since it is a solitary bee, most likely these females are working communally rather than socially. After the creation of the nest, the offspring leave the nest, mate with others, and then hibernate underground for the winter, most likely in different places from their original nests.


Social organization

As a solitary bee, ''L. leucozonium'' generally works by itself. When another female works with it to build a nest, they work communally rather than socially, therefore they double the amount of work they can do rather than declining in efficiency with the added number of females.Wcislo, W. T., Wille, A., Orozco, E. (1993). Nesting biology of tropical solitary and social sweat bees, Lasioglossum (Dialictus) figueresi Wcislo and L. (D.) aeneiventre (Friese) (Hymenoptera: Halictidae). 40, 21–40. Retrieved fro


Interaction with other species

''L. leucozonium'', though solitary, interacts with plants and parasites. Plants provide it with pollen and nectar as food for both themselves and their larvae, while parasites and predators affect their survival.


Diet

''L. leucozonium'' adults and larvae feed on pollen from various flowers. As a generalist, they are not as picky about which flowers they choose compared to a specialist. They also has been seen visiting
apple trees An apple is an edible fruit produced by an apple tree (''Malus domestica''). Apple trees are cultivated worldwide and are the most widely grown species in the genus ''Malus''. The tree originated in Central Asia, where its wild ancestor, ' ...
and lowbush blueberries.


Flowers

''L. leucozonium'' most frequently visit yellow-flowered ''
Asteraceae The family Asteraceae, alternatively Compositae, consists of over 32,000 known species of flowering plants in over 1,900 genera within the order Asterales. Commonly referred to as the aster, daisy, composite, or sunflower family, Compositae w ...
'' like '' Hieracium caespitosum'', '' Krigia biflora'', ''
Rudbeckia hirta ''Rudbeckia hirta'', commonly called black-eyed Susan, is a North American flowering plant in the family Asteraceae, native to Eastern and Central North America and naturalized in the Western part of the continent as well as in China. It has now b ...
'', but have been seen to also visit creeping thistle (''
Cirsium arvense ''Cirsium arvense'' is a perennial species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae, native throughout Europe and western Asia, northern Africa and widely introduced elsewhere.Joint Nature Conservation Committee''Cirsium arvense'' The stand ...
'') and other plants, which include plants from ''
Campanula ''Campanula'' () is one of several genera of flowering plants in the family Campanulaceae commonly known as bellflowers. They take both their common and scientific names from the bell-shaped flowers — ''campanula'' is Latin for "little bell". ...
'' and ''
Rosa Rosa or De Rosa may refer to: People *Rosa (given name) * Rosa (surname) * Santa Rosa (female given name from Latin-a latinized variant of Rose) Places * 223 Rosa, an asteroid * Rosa, Alabama, a town, United States * Rosa, Germany, in Thuringia ...
'' as well as '' Cornus alternifolia''. Males are also commonly found on ''
Melilotus ''Melilotus'', known as melilot, sweet clover, and kumoniga (from the Cumans),Bulgarian Folk Customs, Mercia MacDermott, pg 27 is a genus in the family Fabaceae (the same family that also includes the ''Trifolium'' clovers). Members are known a ...
''.


Parasitoids

While there are no parasites of the genus ''Sphecodes'' that solely parasitize ''L. leucozonium'', ''S. ephippius'' has been shown to parasitize it as well as other ''Lasioglossum''.


Predation

'' Philanthus'' wasps are common predators of ''L. leucozonium''.


References


External links


''Lasioglossum leucozonium'' in Bugguide.netDiscover LifeEncyclopedia of Life
{{Taxonbar, from=Q2601088 leucozonium Hymenoptera of North America Insects described in 1781