The warpaint shiner (''Luxilus coccogenis'') is a species of freshwater fish found in North America. It is common in the upper

Tennessee River The Tennessee River is the largest tributary of the Ohio River. It is approximately long and is located in the southeastern United States in the Tennessee Valley. The river was once popularly known as the Cherokee River, among other name ...

basin as well as in the Savannah River, the

Santee River } The Santee River is a river in South Carolina in the United States, and is long. The Santee and its tributaries provide the principal drainage for the coastal areas of southeastern South Carolina and navigation for the central coastal plain of ...

, and the New River in

North Carolina North Carolina () is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States. The state is the 28th largest and 9th-most populous of the United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, Georgia and ...

. Adults have a mean length of and can reach a maximum length of . The maximum age reported for this species is 4 years. Warpaint shiners live in cool streams with gravel and rubble beds. They feed on aquatic insect larvae and on terrestrial insects they catch on the water surface. The warpaint shiner provides

forage Forage is a plant material (mainly plant leaves and stems) eaten by grazing livestock. Historically, the term ''forage'' has meant only plants eaten by the animals directly as pasture, crop residue, or immature cereal crops, but it is also used ...

for

sport fish Game fish, sport fish or quarry refer to popular fish pursued by recreational anglers, and can be freshwater or saltwater fish. Game fish can be eaten after being caught, or released after capture. Some game fish are also targeted commercial ...

such as small and

large mouth bass The largemouth bass (''Micropterus salmoides'') is a carnivorous freshwater gamefish in the Centrarchidae ( sunfish) family, a species of black bass native to the eastern and central United States, southeastern Canada and northern Mexico, but ...

. Importantly the warpaint shiner acts as host to the federally endangered

freshwater mussel Freshwater bivalves are one kind of freshwater mollusc, along with freshwater snails. They are bivalves that live in fresh water as opposed to salt water, which is the main habitat type for bivalves. The majority of species of bivalve molluscs ...

s known as heelsplitters.

Range and breeding

Warpaint shiners were originally found only in the Tennessee River drainage. Due to human activity, the species has been introduced into the Upper Savannah, the Santee, and the New River drainages.Jenkins, R., N. Burkhead (1993) ''Freshwater Fishes of Virginia''. Bethseda, Maryland: ''American Fisheries Society''. Warpaint shiners inhabit moderate to high gradient creeks, streams, and rivers with clear, cool water where they feed on

aquatic insects Aquatic insects or water insects live some portion of their life cycle in the water. They feed in the same ways as other insects. Some ''diving'' insects, such as predatory diving beetles, can hunt for food underwater where land-living insects c ...

.Outten, L. (1957) "A Study of the Life History of the Cyprinid Fish Notropis Coccogenis." ''Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Science Society,'' ''73'': 68–84. Their life expectancy is from two to four years during which they grow to between 65 mm and 95 mm in length. The breeding season for warpaint shiners spans from May to June, during which time an individual will produce an average of 750 offspring. Importantly the warpaint shiner acts as host to the federally endangered freshwater mussels known as heelsplitters. Heelsplitter populations have been adversely affected by human activities, such as the construction of dams and the pollution and

siltation Siltation, is water pollution caused by particulate Terrestrial ecoregion, terrestrial Clastic rock, clastic material, with a particle size dominated by silt or clay. It refers both to the increased concentration of suspended sediments and to the ...

resulting from large scale agriculture. Heelsplitters have been

extirpate Local extinction, also known as extirpation, refers to a species (or other taxon) of plant or animal that ceases to exist in a chosen geographic area of study, though it still exists elsewhere. Local extinctions are contrasted with global extinct ...

d from much of their native range. This mussel species depends on the warpaint shiner to act as a host to larval mussels that attach to the

fish gill Fish gills are organs that allow fish to breathe underwater. Most fish exchange gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide using gills that are protected under gill covers (operculum) on both sides of the pharynx (throat). Gills are tissues that ar ...

s during their maturation. Further information is needed to establish the importance of the warpaint shiner as a species, and how it should be managed and protected.

Geographic distribution of species

The warpaint shiner is

indigenous Indigenous may refer to: *Indigenous peoples *Indigenous (ecology), presence in a region as the result of only natural processes, with no human intervention *Indigenous (band), an American blues-rock band *Indigenous (horse), a Hong Kong racehorse ...

to the Upper Tennessee River drainage, Western Virginia, Western North Carolina, Northern Georgia and Northern Alabama. It may also be found in adjacent tributaries of the Savannah River in North Carolina and South Carolina, the Catawba, Savannah, and Broad River drainages. Warpaint shiners have been introduced (it is suspected due to bait bucket release) in the New River drainage in North Carolina and Virginia, and the Santee drainage in South Carolina. The impact of these introductions is not known. The warpaint shiner is listed as “present and probably introduced” in the Kanawha River drainage, above the falls. The warpaint shiner persists in its historical range although populations have been negatively affected by damming activity, siltation, and pollution in some locations and are currently threatened in Alabama.

Ecology

Adult warpaint shiners are a

pelagic The pelagic zone consists of the water column of the open ocean, and can be further divided into regions by depth (as illustrated on the right). The word ''pelagic'' is derived . The pelagic zone can be thought of as an imaginary cylinder or w ...

freshwater fish found in rubble and gravel

riffle A riffle is a shallow landform in a flowing channel. Colloquially, it is a shallow place in a river where water flows quickly past rocks. However, in geology a riffle has specific characteristics. Topographic, sedimentary and hydraulic indica ...

s and the pools of fast creeks with high clarity. They prefer cool, clear, and small to medium-sized rivers and streams with rocky substrates. The warpaint shiner is an insectivore. During the spring the warpaint shiner uses its large terminal mouth to primarily feed on aquatic insect larva from the order Ephemeroptera, such as mayfly

nymph A nymph ( grc, νύμφη, nýmphē, el, script=Latn, nímfi, label= Modern Greek; , ) in ancient Greek folklore is a minor female nature deity. Different from Greek goddesses, nymphs are generally regarded as personifications of nature, are ...

s. During the summer warpaint shiners feed mostly terrestrial insects, taken at the surface belonging to the orders Hymenoptera and Coleoptera.

Largemouth bass The largemouth bass (''Micropterus salmoides'') is a carnivorous freshwater gamefish in the Centrarchidae ( sunfish) family, a species of black bass native to the eastern and central United States, southeastern Canada and northern Mexico, bu ...

and smallmouth bass are the two primary predators of the warpaint shiner. Associates of the warpaint shiner include the

saffron shiner The saffron shiner (''Notropis rubricroceus'') is a North American species of ray-finned fish in the genus ''Notropis''. It is found in cold, clear rocky streams and creeks in the Tennessee River drainage.Etnier, David A. and Wayne C. Starnes. 199 ...

and the

river chub The river chub (''Nocomis micropogon'') is a minnow in the family Cyprinidae. It is one of the most common fishes in North American streams. Appearance and anatomy The river chub is a robust minnow, dark olivaceous above to dusky yellow below, ...

. These small

forage fish Forage fish, also called prey fish or bait fish, are small pelagic fish which are preyed on by larger predators for food. Predators include other larger fish, seabirds and marine mammals. Typical ocean forage fish feed near the base of the foo ...

are often found together in small

schools A school is an educational institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of formal education, which is sometimes compulsor ...

. Warpaint shiners have been observed

spawning Spawn is the eggs and sperm released or deposited into water by aquatic animals. As a verb, ''to spawn'' refers to the process of releasing the eggs and sperm, and the act of both sexes is called spawning. Most aquatic animals, except for aquat ...

over the circular nests of the river chub. The warpaint shiner's dependence on clear running water and a rocky substrate to spawn successfully makes it susceptible to the slowing or stopping of rivers and streams by dams and the siltation resulting from river bank destabilization due to farming operations and land development.Herbert, Matthew E.; Frances P. Gelwick and W. L. Montgomery (2003) "Spatial Variation of Headwater Fish Assemblages Explained by Hydrologic Variability and Upstream Effects of Impoundment". ''Copeia,'' 2: 273–284.

Life history

Warpaint shiners reach sexual maturity at two years of age spawning for the first time in their third summer. Spawning occurs in clear running water over the margins of circular rock nests constructed by river chubs and takes place in May and June. Males will hover over the nest in groups of eight to ten with the largest male at the front. Females approach from behind the males and they pair off and settle into a crevice where sperm and

eggs Humans and human ancestors have scavenged and eaten animal eggs for millions of years. Humans in Southeast Asia had domesticated chickens and harvested their eggs for food by 1,500 BCE. The most widely consumed eggs are those of fowl, especial ...

are released. Other males will crowd around a spawning pair and attempt to fertilize the eggs. There is no parental care after spawning. Each spawning can result in 300 to 1600 offspring. Warpaint shiners in the wild live to be around four years of age, slightly longer lifespans have been recorded for specimens in captivity.

Current management

Currently there are no active management initiatives specifically for the warpaint shiner. Though the warpaint shiner is considered a “special concern” in parts of Alabama and South Carolina, global populations are considered stable and secure.

Habitat destruction Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss and habitat reduction) is the process by which a natural habitat becomes incapable of supporting its native species. The organisms that previously inhabited the site are displaced or dead, thereby ...

resulting from

deforestation Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated ...

, loss of

riparian A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between land and a river or stream. Riparian is also the proper nomenclature for one of the terrestrial biomes of the Earth. Plant habitats and communities along the river margins and banks a ...

cover,

and the creation of impoundments pose the greatest risk to the warpaint shiner.Sutherland, A. B., J. L. Meyer, and E. P. Gardiner (2002) "Effects of land cover on sediment regime and fish assemblage structure in four southern Appalachian streams". ''Freshwater Biology,'' 47: 1791–1805. The warpaint shiner is not a valued sport or pan fish and the population is relatively stable in most of its range. The management measures necessary to preserve these fish are beneficial not only to the warpaint shiner but to a myriad of stream dwelling fishes. The warpaint shiner also provides important forage for very popular sport fish such as the largemouth bass and smallmouth bass. Additionally, the warpaint shiner is known to be a host for the Tennessee heelsplitter, a federally endangered freshwater mussel.Steg, M. (1998) "Identification of Host Fish and Experimental Culture of Juveniles for Selected Freshwater Mussel Species in Virginia." Master's Thesis, ''Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,'' 0: 79. In their larval stage these mussels are

parasitic Parasitism is a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The entomologist E. O. Wilson ha ...

and need to attach to the gills or fins of fish in order to mature into juveniles. Because freshwater mussels are the most endangered category of animals in North America, the protection of the fishes that act as hosts for the mussel larva is essential for the recovery of the species.

References

Further references

* {{Taxonbar, from=Q1106270 Luxilus Freshwater fish of the United States Fish described in 1868 Freshwater fish of North America