''Lupinus mutabilis'' is a species of
lupin
''Lupinus'', commonly known as lupin, lupine, or regionally bluebonnet etc., is a genus of plants in the legume family Fabaceae. The genus includes over 199 species, with centers of diversity in North and South America. Smaller centers occur ...
grown in the
Andes
The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S ...
, mainly for its edible
bean
A bean is the seed of several plants in the family Fabaceae, which are used as vegetables for human or animal food. They can be cooked in many different ways, including boiling, frying, and baking, and are used in many traditional dishes th ...
. Vernacular names include tarwi (in
Quechua II
Quechua (, ; ), usually called ("people's language") in Quechuan languages, is an indigenous language family spoken by the Quechua peoples, primarily living in the Peruvian Andes. Derived from a common ancestral language, it is the most widely ...
, pronounced ''tarhui''), chocho, altramuz, Andean lupin, South American lupin, Peruvian field lupin, and pearl lupin.
Its nutrient-rich seeds are high in protein, as well as a good source for cooking oil. However, their bitter taste has made ''L. mutabilis'' relatively unknown outside the Andes, though modern technology makes it easier to remove the bitter
alkaloid
Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar ...
s.
Like other species of
lupin bean
Lupin or lupini beans are the yellow legume seeds of the genus ''Lupinus''. They are traditionally eaten as a pickled snack food, primarily in the Mediterranean basin ('' L. albus''), Latin America ('' L. mutabilis'') and North Africa ('' L. ang ...
s, it is expanding in use as a plant-based protein source.
Origin and Dissemination
The origin of ''L. mutabilis'' has been identified in the Andean region of Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia.
Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective
' (1994). Ed.: J.E. Hernándo Bermejo and J. León; publ. in collab. with the Botanical Garden of Córdoba (Spain) In this area, the greatest genetic variability in the world was found. The plant has been domesticated for more than 1500 years, mostly because of its high protein content.
Biology
''L. mutabilis'' is an annual plant. The stem is hollow and highly branched. Plant height reaches from , depending on the environmental conditions and the genomic properties. Due to the high vegetative growth, species from northern South America are taller than species from the southern Andean region.
The genome contains 2n = 48 chromosomes and there is a high genomic variation, which leads to big differences in morphology. Several architectural types of ''L. mutabilis'' exist. Most common is the branching in V-form, this type has the highest biomass production. The basal branching type has the positive feature that its infructescence is at the same level. This species is preferably promoted because of its early ripening, stability and the homogeny seed quality.
Morphology
The fruit is a long pod, depending on the amount of seed. One pod contains on average 2–3 seeds, but can have up to 9 seeds per pod. The thousand-seed weight (TSW) is around 200 g. Leaves are palmate and have a typical appearance: one leaf is divided in five to twelve leaflets, which have an oval or lanceolate form. The form is typical for
Faboideae
The Faboideae are a subfamily of the flowering plant family Fabaceae or Leguminosae. An acceptable alternative name for the subfamily is Papilionoideae, or Papilionaceae when this group of plants is treated as a family.
This subfamily is wide ...
s. The corolla reaches and contains five petals. Variation in coloration is high and reaches from white to purple. The white coloration is recessive to purple. ''L. mutabilis'' has a strong taproot reaching length. Like all Leguminosae secondary roots build nodules containing bacteria for nitrogen fixation.
Development
The growing cycle varies from 150 to 360 days, depending on the genotype, altitude and environmental conditions. Phenological phases are: emergence, first true leaf, formation of the raceme on the central stem, flowering, podding, pod ripening, and physiological maturity.
Use
Human consumption
The bone-white seed contains more than 40%
protein
Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, respo ...
and 20%
fat
In nutrition science, nutrition, biology, and chemistry, fat usually means any ester of fatty acids, or a mixture of such chemical compound, compounds, most commonly those that occur in living beings or in food.
The term often refers spec ...
and has been used as a food by Andean people since ancient times, especially in
soup
Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served warm or hot (but may be cool or cold), that is made by combining ingredients of meat or vegetables with stock, milk, or water. Hot soups are additionally characterized by boiling solid ing ...
s,
stew
A stew is a combination of solid food ingredients that have been cooked in liquid and served in the resultant gravy. A stew needs to have raw ingredients added to the gravy. Ingredients in a stew can include any combination of vegetables and ...
s,
salad
A salad is a dish consisting of mixed, mostly natural ingredients with at least one raw ingredient. They are typically served at room temperature or chilled, though some can be served warm. Condiments and salad dressings, which exist in a va ...
s and by itself mixed with boiled
maize
Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maíz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. Th ...
. Like other legumes, its protein is rich in the
essential amino acid
An essential amino acid, or indispensable amino acid, is an amino acid that cannot be synthesized from scratch by the organism fast enough to supply its demand, and must therefore come from the diet. Of the 21 amino acids common to all life form ...
lysine
Lysine (symbol Lys or K) is an α-amino acid that is a precursor to many proteins. It contains an α-amino group (which is in the protonated form under biological conditions), an α-carboxylic acid group (which is in the deprotonated −C ...
. The distribution of essential fatty acids is about 28%
linoleic acid
Linoleic acid (LA) is an organic compound with the formula COOH(CH2)7CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2)4CH3. Both alkene groups are cis-trans isomerism, ''cis''. It is a fatty acid sometimes denoted 18:2 (n-6) or 18:2 ''cis''-9,12. A linoleate is a salt (chem ...
(omega-6) and 2%
linolenic acid
Linolenic acid is a type of naturally-occurring fatty acid. It can refer to either of two octadecatrienoic acids (i.e. with an 18-carbon chain and three double bonds, which are found in the '' cis'' configuration), or a mixture of the two. Lino ...
(omega-3). It has a soft
seed coat
A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiosperm pl ...
that makes for easy cooking. It may not have been more widely used because of its bitter taste, due to the
alkaloid
Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar ...
content. It contains unusually high amounts of
sparteine
Sparteine is a class 1a antiarrhythmic agent; a sodium channel blocker. It is an alkaloid and can be extracted from scotch broom. It is the predominant alkaloid in ''Lupinus mutabilis'', and is thought to chelate the bivalent cations calcium and m ...
, which make up nearly half of its alkaloid content. However, the alkaloids are water-soluble and can be removed by soaking the seeds for some days in water.
QAs are heat-stable toxins; cooking alone does not remove the alkaloids. Like other species of
lupin bean
Lupin or lupini beans are the yellow legume seeds of the genus ''Lupinus''. They are traditionally eaten as a pickled snack food, primarily in the Mediterranean basin ('' L. albus''), Latin America ('' L. mutabilis'') and North Africa ('' L. ang ...
s, chocho beans are expanding in use as a plant-based protein source in the world marketplace.
Compounds
''L. mutabilis'' contains 42% of protein and 18% fat in average.
The high fat content has allowed commercial oil pressing. The protein digestibility and nutritional value are reportedly similar to those in
soybean
The soybean, soy bean, or soya bean (''Glycine max'') is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean, which has numerous uses.
Traditional unfermented food uses of soybeans include soy milk, from which tofu an ...
s.
Contents in the seed:
2.1.2. Composición química y valor nutricional de Lupinus mutabilis
/ref>
As with all ''Lupinus'' spp., ''L. mutabilis'' produces compounds called (BLADs). Also as with the rest of the genus it produces oligomer
In chemistry and biochemistry, an oligomer () is a molecule that consists of a few repeating units which could be derived, actually or conceptually, from smaller molecules, monomers.Quote: ''Oligomer molecule: A molecule of intermediate relativ ...
s called BLAD-containing oligomers (BCOs). BCOs have a fungicidal
Fungicides are biocidal chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill parasitic fungi or their spores. A fungistatic inhibits their growth. Fungi can cause serious damage in agriculture, resulting in critical losses of yield, quality, ...
action with multiple MoAs
Moa are extinct giant flightless birds native to New Zealand.
The term has also come to be used for chicken in many Polynesian cultures and is found in the names of many chicken recipes, such as
Kale moa and Moa Samoa.
Moa or MOA may also refer ...
. BCOs were previously classified by the Fungicide Resistance Action Committee
Fungicides are biocidal chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill parasitic fungi or their spores. A fungistatic inhibits their growth. Fungi can cause serious damage in agriculture, resulting in critical losses of yield, quality, ...
(FRAC) into group M 12, but are in group BM 01 (short for "Biological, Multiple modes of action").[ p.16]
Wild populations of ''L. mutabilis'' contain toxic, bitter quinolizidine alkaloids
Quinolizidine alkaloids are natural products that have a quinolizidine structure; this includes the lupine alkaloids.
Occurrence
Quinolizidine alkaloids can be found in the plant family of legumes, especially in papilionaceous plants. While t ...
. Cultivar
A cultivar is a type of cultivated plant that people have selected for desired traits and when propagated retain those traits. Methods used to propagate cultivars include: division, root and stem cuttings, offsets, grafting, tissue culture, ...
s also contain QAs but in much lower levels thanks to breeding program
A breeding program is the planned breeding of a group of animals or plants, usually involving at least several individuals and extending over several generations. There are a couple of breeding methods, such as artificial (which is man made) and ...
s begun in Germany in the 1930s.
Green manure and soil improver
''L. mutabilis'' is able to fix nitrogen from the air. Therefore, succeeding cultures can profit from of nitrogen per hectare. Incorporation in the flowering stage leads to a higher quantity of organic matter and to an improved soil structure.
Agricultural aspects
Soil and climate requirements
''L. mutabilis'' is a crop for cool climates and exists mainly in valleys at high altitudes, such as the Andes at tropical latitudes. The crop can be grown at an altitude that ranges from . The crop withstands exceptional levels of drought. Mature plants are resistant to frost, whereas seedlings are sensitive to low temperatures.
Cultivation technique
Sowing
In traditional farming practices minimum tilling is done before sowing. of unselected seeds is sown.
Improved cultivation practices:
It is recommended to apply phosphorus
Phosphorus is a chemical element with the symbol P and atomic number 15. Elemental phosphorus exists in two major forms, white phosphorus and red phosphorus, but because it is highly reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Ear ...
and of potassium
Potassium is the chemical element with the symbol K (from Neo-Latin ''kalium'') and atomic number19. Potassium is a silvery-white metal that is soft enough to be cut with a knife with little force. Potassium metal reacts rapidly with atmosphe ...
as fertilization before sowing. The sowing of selected seeds in a distance of , either by hand or by seed drill, follows. Plants germinate fast due to the high fat content in the seeds.
Crop rotation aspects
Early varieties of ''L. mutabilis'', with a growing period of about 150 days, can be cultivated in rotation with potatoes and cereals. Nematode disease of potato can be controlled by alkaloids when cultivated after ''L. mutabilis''.
Harvest
In traditional farming practices harvest occurs when plants have reached full maturity and the water content of seeds is between 8-12%.
From peasant plots average yield is about per hectare under suitable conditions yield reaches up to per hectare.
Disease control
Alkaloids can act as a pesticide but breeding goals aim for a low alkaloid content. Therefore, other disease control methods must be applied. Since ''L. mutabilis'' is a low-input crop, disease control mainly is done by phytosanitary methods. A reduction of soil born saprophytes can be reached by removing dry straw from the field. Instead of green manure the plant residues can be used as fuel. Seed borne diseases can be reduced by translocation of seed production and by the use of certificated seed.
If seed production is done by the cultivator, diseases can be controlled by reducing the number of infected seed and by a permanent control of diseases in the field. Another possibility is to treat seed with a fungicide prior to sowing.
Breeding goals
Since species with low alkaloid content are already available a further step would be to make them more stable and low alkaloid content is inherited. Other breeding goals are tolerance to diseases and insects, improvement in yield, early maturing and synchronous ripening. Higher resistance could be reached by breeding a variety with high alkaloid content in leaves but not in the seeds.
References
External links
The ancient Ecuadorean legume being hailed as a new superfood
– BBC
Plants for a Future
Lupins - geography, classification, genetic resources
'From the Andes: First Potato, Then Quinoa, Now Tarwi?'
in The Natural Farmer, Fall 2004 (p. 40)
'Tarwi' chapter, in "Lost Crops of the Incas"
{{Authority control
mutabilis
Flora of the Andes
Flora of Bolivia
Flora of Ecuador
Flora of Peru
Crops originating from South America
Crops originating from Ecuador
Crops originating from Peru
Peruvian cuisine