The ''Lunheng'', also known by numerous English translations, is a wide-ranging

Chinese classic text Chinese classic texts or canonical texts () or simply dianji (典籍) refers to the Chinese texts which originated before the imperial unification by the Qin dynasty in 221 BC, particularly the "Four Books and Five Classics" of the Neo-Confucian ...

Wang Chong Wang Chong (; 27 – c. 97 AD), courtesy name Zhongren (仲任), was a Chinese astronomer, meteorologist, naturalist, philosopher, and writer active during the Han Dynasty. He developed a rational, secular, naturalistic and mechanistic account ...

(27- ). First published in 80, it contains critical essays on

natural science Natural science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer review and repeatab ...

and

Chinese mythology Chinese mythology () is mythology that has been passed down in oral form or recorded in literature in the geographic area now known as Greater China. Chinese mythology includes many varied myths from regional and cultural traditions. Much of t ...

philosophy Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. Some ...

, and

literature Literature is any collection of written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose fiction, drama, and poetry. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to include ...

Name

The title ''Lunheng'' combines ''lun'' 論 or 论 "discuss; talk about; discourse; decide on; determine; mention; regard; consider" and ''heng'' 衡 "crosswise; balance beam; weigh; measure; judge; appreciate". English translations of the title include "Disquisitions" (Alfred Forke), "Critical Essays" ( Feng Yu-lan), "The Balanced Inquiries" (

Wing-tsit Chan Wing-tsit Chan (; 18 August 1901 – 12 August 1994) was a Chinese scholar and professor best known for his studies of Chinese philosophy and his translations of Chinese philosophical texts. Chan was born in China in 1901 and went to the United St ...

), or "Discourses Weighed in the Balance" (

Joseph Needham Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham (; 9 December 1900 – 24 March 1995) was a British biochemist, historian of science and sinologist known for his scientific research and writing on the history of Chinese science and technology, in ...

Text

The received ''Lunheng'' comprises 85 ''pian'' 篇 "articles; sections; chapters" in 30 ''juan'' 巻 "scrolls; volumes; books", with more than 200,000

characters Character or Characters may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Literature * ''Character'' (novel), a 1936 Dutch novel by Ferdinand Bordewijk * ''Characters'' (Theophrastus), a classical Greek set of character sketches attributed to The ...

. Actually, 84 ''pian'' is more accurate because the text only contains the title of Chapter 44 ''Zhaozhi'' 招致. Yang Wenchang (楊文昌) edited the first printed ''Lunheng'' edition, which was the basis for subsequent editions. Its 1045 preface notes that Yang compared 2 complete and 7 partial textual copies and corrected 11,259 characters. "No commentaries to the ''Lun heng'' appear to have been written before the nineteenth century," write Pokora and Loewe, which is unusual among Chinese classics. The first ''Lunheng'' commentators were

Yu Yue Yu Yue (; December 1821 5 February 1907), courtesy name Yinfu, '' hao'' Quyuan, was a prominent scholar and official of Qing dynasty China. An expert in philology and textual studies, he taught and wrote prolifically on the classics and his ...

(1821–1907),

Sun Yirang Sun Yirang (; 1848–1908) was a Qing dynasty Chinese philologist. A native of Wenzhou, Zhejiang province, he retired from official employment early in his life to devote himself to scholarship. His most important works are ''Mozi Jiangu'' (墨� ...

(1848–1908), and

Yang Shoujing Yang Shoujing (; 1839 – 9 January 1915) was a Chinese antiquarian, bibliophile, calligrapher, diplomat, geographer, and historian. He is best known for the historical atlas ''Lidai yudi tu'', commonly called the ''Yangtu'' ("Yang's atlas"), t ...

(1839–1915).

History

Based on internal evidence, Forke concludes the Later Han Dynasty ''Lunheng'' text "must date" from the years 76-84. Chapter 38 (齊世 "The Equality of the Ages") says, "Our present sage and enlightened sovereign is continuing the blessings and the prosperity of the reigns of"

Emperor Guangwu Emperor Guangwu of Han (; 15 January 5 BC – 29 March AD 57), born Liu Xiu (), courtesy name Wenshu (), was a Chinese monarch. He served as an emperor of the Han dynasty by restoring the dynasty in AD 25, thus founding the Eastern Han (Later ...

(r. 25-57) and Emperor Ming (r. 58-75), which implies the period of Emperor Zhang (r. 75-88). Chapter 30 (講瑞 "Arguments on Ominous Creatures"), notes it was completed during the ''Jianchu'' 建初

era An era is a span of time defined for the purposes of chronology or historiography, as in the regnal eras in the history of a given monarchy, a calendar era used for a given calendar, or the geological eras defined for the history of Earth. Comp ...

(76-84). Feng notes the ''Lunheng'' "was probably completed" during the years 82 and 83. "The authenticity of the work has not been brought into question", write Pokora and Loewe, and the text "may possibly have been completed between 70 and 80", based upon collections of Wang's earlier writings or essays.

Content

The contents of the ''Lunheng'' are summarized by Pokora and Loewe.

In discussing natural phenomena and their implications or causes, matters of popular belief and misconception and political issues, the book is often written in polemical form. A controversial statement is made, to be followed by the author's critical rebuttal, which is often supported by quotations from earlier writings. In many ways the ''Lun heng'' may be regarded as an encyclopaedic collection of the claims and beliefs of Chinese religion, thought and folklore.

Wang's ''Lunheng'' frequently espouses

Daoist Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the ''Tao'' ...

notions of naturalism. For example, Chapter 54 ''

Ziran Ziran or tzu-jan is a key concept in Daoism that literally means "of its own; by itself" and thus "naturally; natural; spontaneously; freely; in the course of events; of course; doubtlessly". This Chinese word is a two-character compound of ''z ...

'' 自然 "Spontaneity" says.

By the fusion of the fluids 'qi''.html" ;"title="qi.html" ;"title="'qi">'qi''">qi.html" ;"title="'qi">'qi''of Heaven and Earth all things of the world are produced spontaneously, just as by the mixture of the fluids of husband and wife children are born spontaneously. Among the things thus produced, creatures with blood in their veins are sensitive of hunger and cold. Seeing that grain can be eaten, they use it as food, and discovering that silk and hemp can be worn, they take it as raiment. Some people are of opinion that Heaven produces grain for the purpose of feeding mankind, and silk and hemp to cloth them. That would be tantamount to making Heaven the farmer of man or his mulberry girl [who feeds the silkworms], it would not be in accordance with spontaneity, therefore this opinion is very questionable and unacceptable.

Reasoning on Taoist principles we find that Heaven [''tian''] emits its fluid everywhere. Among the many things of this world grain dispels hunger, and silk and hemp protect from cold. For that reason man eats grain, and wears silk and hemp. That Heaven does not produce grain, silk, and hemp purposely, in order to feed and cloth mankind, follows from the fact that by calamitous changes it does not intend to reprove man. Things are produced spontaneously, and man wears and eats them; the fluid changes spontaneously, and man is frightened by it, for the usual theory is disheartening. Where would be spontaneity, if the heavenly signs were intentional, and where inaction 'wu_wei''.html" ;"title="wu_wei.html" ;"title="'wu wei">'wu wei''">wu_wei.html" ;"title="'wu wei">'wu wei'', cf. and .

References

* * * * Footnotes

External links