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Lumma was a
Mesopotamian god Deities in ancient Mesopotamia were almost exclusively anthropomorphic. They were thought to possess extraordinary powers and were often envisioned as being of tremendous physical size. The deities typically wore ''melam'', an ambiguous substan ...
who could be portrayed as a warrior or as a farmer. He was also It has been proposed that he was originally understood as the deified form of historical king
Eannatum Eannatum ( sux, ) was a Sumerian '' Ensi'' (ruler or king) of Lagash circa 2500–2400 BCE. He established one of the first verifiable empires in history: he subdued Elam and destroyed the city of Susa as well as several other Iranian cities, and ...
of
Lagash Lagash (cuneiform: LAGAŠKI; Sumerian: ''Lagaš''), was an ancient city state located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk, about east of the modern town of Ash Shatrah, Iraq. Lagash (modern Al-Hiba) w ...
, but theory remains a matter of dispute among researchers. He could be paired with Ḫadaniš, and together they belonged to the group of deities associated with
Enlil Enlil, , "Lord f theWind" later known as Elil, is an ancient Mesopotamian god associated with wind, air, earth, and storms. He is first attested as the chief deity of the Sumerian pantheon, but he was later worshipped by the Akkadians, Bab ...
and the temple
Ekur Ekur ( ), also known as Duranki, is a Sumerian term meaning "mountain house". It is the assembly of the gods in the Garden of the gods, parallel in Greek mythology to Mount Olympus and was the most revered and sacred building of ancient Sumer. ...
. The goddess
Ninmug Ninmug or Ninmuga was a Mesopotamian goddess. She was associated with artisanship, especially with metalworking, as evidenced by her epithet ''tibira kalamma'', "metalworker of the land." She could also be regarded as a goddess of birth and assist ...
could be described as his mother. The worship of Lumma is best documented in
Umma Umma ( sux, ; in modern Dhi Qar Province in Iraq, formerly also called Gishban) was an ancient city in Sumer. There is some scholarly debate about the Sumerian and Akkadian names for this site. Traditionally, Umma was identified with Tell J ...
and
Nippur Nippur (Sumerian language, Sumerian: ''Nibru'', often logogram, logographically recorded as , EN.LÍLKI, "Enlil City;"The Cambridge Ancient History: Prolegomena & Prehistory': Vol. 1, Part 1. Accessed 15 Dec 2010. Akkadian language, Akkadian: '' ...
. One of the kings of the former of these two cities bore the theophoric name
Ur-Lumma ''Ur-Lumma'' ( sux, , ) was a ruler of the Sumerian city-state of Umma, circa 2400 BCE. His father was King Enakalle, who had been vanquished by Eannatum of Lagash. Ur-Lumma claimed the title of "King" (''Lugal''). His reign lasted at least 12 ye ...
.


Name

The reading of the name dLUM-ma is not entirely certain, though Lumma (''dLum-ma'') is commonly used in modern
Assyriological Assyriology (from Greek , ''Assyriā''; and , ''-logia'') is the archaeological, anthropological, and linguistic study of Assyria and the rest of ancient Mesopotamia (a region that encompassed what is now modern Iraq, northeastern Syria, southea ...
literature. In the past Ḫumma was believed to be a plausible reading. The uncertainty extends to
theophoric name A theophoric name (from Greek: , ''theophoros'', literally "bearing or carrying a god") embeds the word equivalent of 'god' or God's name in a person's name, reflecting something about the character of the person so named in relation to that deit ...
s with the element dLUM-''ma'', resulting in spellings such as Ur-LUM-ma. Origins in Sumerian, in a
Semitic language The Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are spoken by more than 330 million people across much of West Asia, the Horn of Africa, and latterly North Africa, Malta, West Africa, Chad, and in large immigrant a ...
or in a substrate have all been proposed for Lumma. Possible translations presuming the first of these options is correct include "magnificent", "lush" or "tall". While attempts have also been made to explain it as "cloud", Lumma shows no affinity with weather deities in known sources. Proponents of the second theory interpret it as an imperative derived from the
root In vascular plants, the roots are the organs of a plant that are modified to provide anchorage for the plant and take in water and nutrients into the plant body, which allows plants to grow taller and faster. They are most often below the sur ...
*''lmm'', "to gather", or less plausibly as *''lūn-ma'', "he has come". In names in which the element ''lumma'' appears to fulfill a theophoric function, but is not accompanied by the
dingir ''Dingir'' (, usually transliterated DIĜIR, ) is a Sumerian word for "god" or "goddess". Its cuneiform sign is most commonly employed as the determinative for religious names and related concepts, in which case it is not pronounced and is con ...
sign, it might be understood as an
epithet An epithet (, ), also byname, is a descriptive term (word or phrase) known for accompanying or occurring in place of a name and having entered common usage. It has various shades of meaning when applied to seemingly real or fictitious people, di ...
of another deity. In this case, it can be translated as "the lusty one", in a sense highlighting the strength of its bearer. According to Gebhard J. Selz the deity meant might be Dumuzi. However, his interpretation has been challenged by Gianni Marchesi, who argues most of his examples are misreadings. He instead suggests
Ningirsu , image= Cropped Image of Carving Showing the Mesopotamian God Ninurta.png , caption= Assyrian stone relief from the temple of Ninurta at Kalhu, showing the god with his thunderbolts pursuing Anzû, who has stolen the Tablet of Destinies from En ...
is a plausible interpretation.


Character

Lumma was regarded as a warrior deity, and his attribute was a mace. He could also be described as a farmer. Gianni Marchesi notes that the combination of these two roles might suggest he was a deity similar to
Ninurta , image= Cropped Image of Carving Showing the Mesopotamian God Ninurta.png , caption= Assyrian stone relief from the temple of Ninurta at Kalhu, showing the god with his thunderbolts pursuing Anzû, who has stolen the Tablet of Destinies from En ...
or
Ningirsu , image= Cropped Image of Carving Showing the Mesopotamian God Ninurta.png , caption= Assyrian stone relief from the temple of Ninurta at Kalhu, showing the god with his thunderbolts pursuing Anzû, who has stolen the Tablet of Destinies from En ...
, though his position in the Mesopotamian pantheon was less prominent. A close affinity between the character of Lumma and Ningirsu has also been pointed out by Daniel Schwemer. Lumma could be invoked against harmful supernatural beings. An
incantation An incantation, a spell, a charm, an enchantment or a bewitchery, is a magical formula intended to trigger a magical effect on a person or objects. The formula can be spoken, sung or chanted. An incantation can also be performed during ceremo ...
refers to him as a ''
gallu In Sumerian and ancient Mesopotamian religion, gallûs (also called gallas; Akkadian ''gallû'' < Sumerian ) were great
'' (in this context, a supernatural "gendarme"), and implores Dumuzi to hand over a malicious demon troubling the petitioner to him. Marchesi argues that he can be considered the "gendarme-demon ''par excellence''." Bendt Alster suggested that Lumma might have been the personification of good luck. He was believed to bestow it upon people of good reputation. This aspect of his character is known from a proverb.


Lumma as a deified king

Thorkild Jacobsen Thorkild Peter Rudolph Jacobsen (; 7 June 1904 – 2 May 1993) was a renowned Danish historian specializing in Assyriology and Sumerian literature. He was one of the foremost scholars on the ancient Near East. Biography Thorkild Peter Rudolph Ja ...
suggested that Lumma represented the
deification Apotheosis (, ), also called divinization or deification (), is the glorification of a subject to divine levels and, commonly, the treatment of a human being, any other living thing, or an abstract idea in the likeness of a deity. The term has ...
of a historical king,
Eannatum Eannatum ( sux, ) was a Sumerian '' Ensi'' (ruler or king) of Lagash circa 2500–2400 BCE. He established one of the first verifiable empires in history: he subdued Elam and destroyed the city of Susa as well as several other Iranian cities, and ...
of
Lagash Lagash (cuneiform: LAGAŠKI; Sumerian: ''Lagaš''), was an ancient city state located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk, about east of the modern town of Ash Shatrah, Iraq. Lagash (modern Al-Hiba) w ...
. The name Lumma is described in primary sources as Eannatum's "Tidnean name", Tidneans being a group of
Amorites The Amorites (; sux, 𒈥𒌅, MAR.TU; Akkadian language, Akkadian: 𒀀𒈬𒊒𒌝 or 𒋾𒀉𒉡𒌝/𒊎 ; he, אֱמוֹרִי, 'Ĕmōrī; grc, Ἀμορραῖοι) were an ancient Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic-speaking people ...
. It has been suggested that the second name might indicate that his mother or grandmother was an Amorite woman, though this theory is not plausible in the light of direct references to his family hailing from Gursar, a small settlement in the state of Lagash. A further possibility is that he received it from Tidnean mercenaries serving in his army, but it is not universally accepted either. Gebhard J. Selz's proposal that Lumma is to be interpreted as a title of Dumuzi in this context and that it refers to the king serving as a symbolic representation of this god is implausible according to Gianni Marchesi. Yet another possibility is that Eannatum was only a
regnal name A regnal name, or regnant name or reign name, is the name used by monarchs and popes during their reigns and, subsequently, historically. Since ancient times, some monarchs have chosen to use a different name from their original name when they ac ...
, while Lumma the given name of the same king, but the evidence is not conclusive. Jacobsen pointed out that Lumma was associated with Ḫadaniš, who according to the ''
Sumerian King List The ''Sumerian King List'' (abbreviated ''SKL'') or ''Chronicle of the One Monarchy'' is an ancient literary composition written in Sumerian that was likely created and redacted to legitimize the claims to power of various city-states and king ...
'' was a king of Ḫamazi, and on this basis concluded both of them were kings who at some point controlled
Nippur Nippur (Sumerian language, Sumerian: ''Nibru'', often logogram, logographically recorded as , EN.LÍLKI, "Enlil City;"The Cambridge Ancient History: Prolegomena & Prehistory': Vol. 1, Part 1. Accessed 15 Dec 2010. Akkadian language, Akkadian: '' ...
, placed their statues in
Ekur Ekur ( ), also known as Duranki, is a Sumerian term meaning "mountain house". It is the assembly of the gods in the Garden of the gods, parallel in Greek mythology to Mount Olympus and was the most revered and sacred building of ancient Sumer. ...
, and eventually came to be worshiped as deities associated with this temple. Other possible examples of minor deities who originated as deified legendary or historical rulers include Enlilazi, the "superintendent of Ekur", Ur-Suena, the herald of this temple's outer shrine,
Ur-Zababa Ur-Zababa is listed on the ''Sumerian King List'' as the second king of the 4th Dynasty of Kish. This text also records that Ur-Zababa had appointed Sargon of Akkad as his cup-bearer. Sargon was later the ruler of the Akkadian Empire. Family A ...
, the counsellor of Ninurta, Malaka, and others.
Itūr-Mēr Itūr-Mēr was a Mesopotamian god worshiped in the kingdom of Mari, and after its fall in the kingdom of Khana, especially in Terqa. His name is structured like a theophoric name rather than a typical theonym, which lead to the proposal that he ...
and
Yakrub-El Yakrub-El or Ikrub-El was a Mesopotamian god worshiped in Terqa in the kingdom of Mari in the early Old Babylonian period. Since his name is structured as if it were a theophoric personal name, is commonly assumed that he was a deified hero or a ...
worshiped in Mari have also been classified as such. The proposal that the god Lumma is deified Eannatum has been accepted by Assyriologists such as
Wilfred G. Lambert Wilfred George Lambert FBA (26 February 1926 – 9 November 2011) was a historian and archaeologist, a specialist in Assyriology and Near Eastern Archaeology. Early life Lambert was born in Birmingham, and, having won a scholarship, he was edu ...
, Richard L. Litke, Ichiro Nakata,
Samuel Noah Kramer Samuel Noah Kramer (September 28, 1897 – November 26, 1990) was one of the world's leading Assyriologists, an expert in Sumerian history and Sumerian language. After high school, he attended Temple University, before Dropsie and Penn, both in ...
, and a number of other researchers, but it did not find universal support and remains a matter of controversy. Josef Bauer due to the broad distribution of
theophoric name A theophoric name (from Greek: , ''theophoros'', literally "bearing or carrying a god") embeds the word equivalent of 'god' or God's name in a person's name, reflecting something about the character of the person so named in relation to that deit ...
s invoking Lumma argues that it is outright impossible for him to be a deified king of Lagash. The possibility that there were two deities named Lumma, a deified king and an unrelated independent figure, has also been considered. It is also possible that even if he did develop as a deified ruler, he was not identical with Eannatum, but rather with another bearer of the name Lumma, which was common in the third millennium. Another candidate is an '' ensi'' named Lumma mentioned in texts from Adab and
Shuruppak Shuruppak ( sux, , "the healing place"), modern Tell Fara, was an ancient Sumerian city situated about 55 kilometres (35 mi) south of Nippur on the banks of the Euphrates in Iraq's Al-Qādisiyyah Governorate. Shuruppak was dedicated to Ni ...
.


Associations with other deities

Lumma was frequently associated with Ḫadaniš, and both of them could be described as ''udug E2-kur-ra'', "guardians of Ekur". As such, they belonged to the circle of deities connected with
Enlil Enlil, , "Lord f theWind" later known as Elil, is an ancient Mesopotamian god associated with wind, air, earth, and storms. He is first attested as the chief deity of the Sumerian pantheon, but he was later worshipped by the Akkadians, Bab ...
. A single esoteric scholarly texts equates Lumma with
Nuska Nuska or Nusku, possibly also known as Našuḫ, was a Mesopotamian god best attested as the sukkal (divine vizier) of Enlil. He was also associated with fire and light, and could be invoked as a protective deity against various demons, such as La ...
and Ḫadaniš with
Sadarnunna Sadarnunna was a Mesopotamian goddess regarded as the wife of Nuska. Very little is known about her individual character. She was worshiped in Nippur, and appears alongside other deities of this city in texts from the Ur III period already. In lat ...
, Nuska's spouse. However, elsewhere Nuska and Lumma occur as separate deities. A lamentation refers to Lumma as a servant of a deity whose name is not preserved, who might be either Dumuzi, another similar dying god such as
Ningishzida Ningishzida ( Sumerian: DNIN-G̃IŠ-ZID-DA, possible meaning "Lord f theGood Tree") was a Mesopotamian deity of vegetation, the underworld and sometimes war. He was commonly associated with snakes. Like Dumuzi, he was believed to spend a part ...
or Lulil, or alternatively
Ningublaga Ningublaga (, less commonly Ningublag) was a Mesopotamian god associated with cattle. His cult center was Kiabrig, a little known city located in the proximity of Ur. He belonged to the circle of deities related to the moon god, Nanna, and some ...
. This connection reflects his relatively low rank in the Mesopotamian pantheon. The goddess
Ninmug Ninmug or Ninmuga was a Mesopotamian goddess. She was associated with artisanship, especially with metalworking, as evidenced by her epithet ''tibira kalamma'', "metalworker of the land." She could also be regarded as a goddess of birth and assist ...
could be addressed as Lumma's mother. While a standard list of deities of laments in some known examples places him next to Ereš'ugga ("queen of the dead", the wife of
Lugala'abba Lugala'abba or Lugalabba was a Mesopotamian god associated with the sea, as well as with the underworld. It has been proposed that he was worshiped in Nippur. He is also attested in various god lists, in a seal inscription, and in the incantatio ...
), this is most likely a mistake based on confusion between her and Ninmug resulting from the similar pronunciation of the ''
Emesal Sumerian is the language of ancient Sumer. It is one of the oldest attested languages, dating back to at least 3000 BC. It is accepted to be a local language isolate and to have been spoken in ancient Mesopotamia, in the area that is modern-day ...
'' forms of their names. Whether the connection between Lumma and Ninmug was based on the latter being involved in the
investiture Investiture (from the Latin preposition ''in'' and verb ''vestire'', "dress" from ''vestis'' "robe") is a formal installation or ceremony that a person undergoes, often related to membership in Christian religious institutes as well as Christian k ...
of kings and the latter possibly being a deified ruler is not certain.


Worship

Most attestations of the worship of Lumma come from the Early Dynastic period and from the reign of the
Third Dynasty of Ur The Third Dynasty of Ur, also called the Neo-Sumerian Empire, refers to a 22nd to 21st century Common Era, BC (middle chronology) Sumerian ruling dynasty based in the city of Ur and a short-lived territorial-political state which some historians c ...
. It is presumed that he was venerated in
Nippur Nippur (Sumerian language, Sumerian: ''Nibru'', often logogram, logographically recorded as , EN.LÍLKI, "Enlil City;"The Cambridge Ancient History: Prolegomena & Prehistory': Vol. 1, Part 1. Accessed 15 Dec 2010. Akkadian language, Akkadian: '' ...
and
Umma Umma ( sux, ; in modern Dhi Qar Province in Iraq, formerly also called Gishban) was an ancient city in Sumer. There is some scholarly debate about the Sumerian and Akkadian names for this site. Traditionally, Umma was identified with Tell J ...
. In sources from the former city, he appears in a number of
theophoric name A theophoric name (from Greek: , ''theophoros'', literally "bearing or carrying a god") embeds the word equivalent of 'god' or God's name in a person's name, reflecting something about the character of the person so named in relation to that deit ...
s. Many are also known from the latter, including that of the local ruler
Ur-Lumma ''Ur-Lumma'' ( sux, , ) was a ruler of the Sumerian city-state of Umma, circa 2400 BCE. His father was King Enakalle, who had been vanquished by Eannatum of Lagash. Ur-Lumma claimed the title of "King" (''Lugal''). His reign lasted at least 12 ye ...
. He used the title ''
lugal Lugal ( Sumerian: ) is the Sumerian term for "king, ruler". Literally, the term means "big man." In Sumerian, ''lu'' "𒇽" is "man" and ''gal'' "𒃲" is "great," or "big." It was one of several Sumerian titles that a ruler of a city-state could ...
'' in his own inscription, but texts from
Lagash Lagash (cuneiform: LAGAŠKI; Sumerian: ''Lagaš''), was an ancient city state located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk, about east of the modern town of Ash Shatrah, Iraq. Lagash (modern Al-Hiba) w ...
call him an ''ensi''. Another Ur-Lumma was an official during the reign of
Lugalzagesi Lugal-Zage-Si ( ; frequently spelled ''Lugalzaggesi'', sometimes ''Lugalzagesi'' or "Lugal-Zaggisi") of Umma (reigned c. 2358 - 2334 BCE middle chronology) was the last Sumerian king before the conquest of Sumer by Sargon of Akkad and the rise o ...
. Lumma is also attested in an offering list from Umma from the Ur III period. Due to Lumma's connection to
Ninmug Ninmug or Ninmuga was a Mesopotamian goddess. She was associated with artisanship, especially with metalworking, as evidenced by her epithet ''tibira kalamma'', "metalworker of the land." She could also be regarded as a goddess of birth and assist ...
it has been suggested that at some point he might have belonged to the local pantheon of Kisiga, a city which according to the Early Dynastic '' zame'' hymns was her cult center. In Adab, Lumma is attested in various theophoric names from the third millennium BCE, such as Lu-Lumma, Ur-Lumma and Lumma-zi. Further examples are also available from
Shuruppak Shuruppak ( sux, , "the healing place"), modern Tell Fara, was an ancient Sumerian city situated about 55 kilometres (35 mi) south of Nippur on the banks of the Euphrates in Iraq's Al-Qādisiyyah Governorate. Shuruppak was dedicated to Ni ...
and Ur. Lumma is also attested in the names of various fields and canals. One example is Lummagimdu, "good like Lumma".


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * {{refend Mesopotamian gods War gods Agricultural gods