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Lullubi, Lulubi ( akk, 𒇻𒇻𒉈: ''Lu-lu-bi'', akk, 𒇻𒇻𒉈𒆠: ''Lu-lu-biki'' "Country of the Lullubi"), more commonly known as Lullu, were a group of tribes during the 3rd millennium BC, from a region known as ''Lulubum'', now the
Sharazor Shahrizor or Shahrazur () is a region part of Kurdistan Region, Iraq situated in the Sulaymaniyah Governorate and west of Avroman. Shahrizor is a fertile plain watered by the tributaries of Tandjaro river which flows to Diyala and Tigris rivers. ...
plain of the
Zagros Mountains The Zagros Mountains ( ar, جبال زاغروس, translit=Jibal Zaghrus; fa, کوه‌های زاگرس, Kuh hā-ye Zāgros; ku, چیاکانی زاگرۆس, translit=Çiyakani Zagros; Turkish: ''Zagros Dağları''; Luri: ''Kuh hā-ye Zāgro ...
of modern
Kurdistan Kurdistan ( ku, کوردستان ,Kurdistan ; lit. "land of the Kurds") or Greater Kurdistan is a roughly defined geo-cultural territory in Western Asia wherein the Kurds form a prominent majority population and the Kurdish culture, Kurdish la ...
, Lullubi was neighbour and sometimes ally with the Simurrum kingdom. Frayne (1990) identified their city ''Lulubuna'' or ''Luluban'' with the region's modern town of
Halabja Halabja ( ku, هەڵەبجە, Helebce, ) is a city in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq and the capital of Halabja Governorate, located about northeast of Baghdad and from the Iranian border. The city lies at the base of what is often referred to ...
. The language of the Lullubi is regarded as an
unclassified language An unclassified language is a language whose genetic affiliation to other languages has not been established. Languages can be unclassified for a variety of reasons, mostly due to a lack of reliable data but sometimes due to the confounding inf ...
because it is unattested. The term ''Lullubi'' though, appears to be of
Hurrian The Hurrians (; cuneiform: ; transliteration: ''Ḫu-ur-ri''; also called Hari, Khurrites, Hourri, Churri, Hurri or Hurriter) were a people of the Bronze Age Near East. They spoke a Hurrian language and lived in Anatolia, Syria and Northern ...
origin.


Historical references


Legends

The early Sumerian legend "''
Lugalbanda and the Anzud Bird ''Lugalbanda and the Anzu Bird'' is a Sumerian mythological account. The story is sometimes called ''The Return of Lugalbanda'' or ''Lugalbanda II'' being the second of two stories about the hero Lugalbanda. The first story is known as ''Lugalba ...
''", set in the reign of
Enmerkar Enmerkar was an ancient Sumerian ruler to whom the construction of Uruk and a 420-year reign was attributed. According to literary sources, he led various campaigns against the land of Aratta. Historical king Late Uruk period The tradition ...
of
Uruk Uruk, also known as Warka or Warkah, was an ancient city of Sumer (and later of Babylonia) situated east of the present bed of the Euphrates River on the dried-up ancient channel of the Euphrates east of modern Samawah, Al-Muthannā, Iraq.Harm ...
, alludes to the "mountains of Lulubi" as being where the character of
Lugalbanda Lugalbanda was a deified Sumerian king of Uruk who, according to various sources of Mesopotamian literature, was the father of Gilgamesh. Early sources mention his consort Ninsun and his heroic deeds in an expedition to Aratta by King Enmerkar. ...
encounters the gigantic ''
Anzû Anzû, also known as dZû and Imdugud ( Sumerian: ''AN.IM.DUGUD MUŠEN''), is a lesser divinity or monster in several Mesopotamian religions. He was conceived by the pure waters of the Apsu and the wide Earth, or as son of Siris. Anzû was depi ...
'' bird while searching for the rest of Enmerkar's army ''en route'' to siege
Aratta Aratta is a land that appears in Sumerian myths surrounding Enmerkar and Lugalbanda, two early and possibly mythical kings of Uruk also mentioned on the Sumerian king list. Role in Sumerian literature Aratta is described as follows in Sumeri ...
.


Akkadian empire and Gutian dynasty

Lullubum appears in historical times as one of the lands
Sargon the Great Sargon of Akkad (; akk, ''Šarrugi''), also known as Sargon the Great, was the first ruler of the Akkadian Empire, known for his conquests of the Sumerian city-states in the 24th to 23rd centuries BC.The date of the reign of Sargon is highl ...
subjugated within his
Akkadian Empire The Akkadian Empire () was the first ancient empire of Mesopotamia after the long-lived civilization of Sumer. It was centered in the city of Akkad (city), Akkad () and its surrounding region. The empire united Akkadian language, Akkadian and ...
, along with the neighboring province of
Gutium The Guti () or Quti, also known by the derived exonyms Gutians or Guteans, were a nomadic people of West Asia, around the Zagros Mountains (Modern Iran) during ancient times. Their homeland was known as Gutium ( Sumerian: ,''Gu-tu-umki'' or ,''G ...
, which was probably of the same origin as the Lullubi. Sargon's grandson Naram Sin defeated the Lullubi and their king
Satuni Satuni, or Sutuni ( akk, 𒊓𒌅𒉌: ''Sa-tu-ni''), was a king or prince of the kingdom of Lullubi c. 2270 BC. Satuni was defeated by Sargon's grandson Naram Sin, a defeat which is mentioned in the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin: File:Naram- ...
, and had his famous victory
stele A stele ( ),Anglicized plural steles ( ); Greek plural stelai ( ), from Greek , ''stēlē''. The Greek plural is written , ''stēlai'', but this is only rarely encountered in English. or occasionally stela (plural ''stelas'' or ''stelæ''), whe ...
made in commemoration: After the Akkadian Empire fell to the
Gutians The Guti () or Quti, also known by the derived exonyms Gutians or Guteans, were a nomadic people of West Asia, around the Zagros Mountains (Modern Iran) during ancient times. Their homeland was known as Gutium ( Sumerian: ,''Gu-tu-umki'' or ,'' ...
, the Lullubians rebelled against the Gutian king
Erridupizir Erridupizir ('' fl.'' 2141–2138 BC (Short chronology)) was a Gutian ruler in Sumer. His reign was attested by a royal inscription at the archaeological site for the ancient city-state of Nippur where he called himself: "'' King of Guti, King ...
, according to the latter's inscriptions:


Neo-Sumerian Empire

Following the Gutian period, the
Neo-Sumerian Empire The Third Dynasty of Ur, also called the Neo-Sumerian Empire, refers to a 22nd to 21st century BC (middle chronology) Sumerian ruling dynasty based in the city of Ur and a short-lived territorial-political state which some historians consider to ...
(Ur-III) ruler
Shulgi Shulgi ( dŠulgi, formerly read as Dungi) of Ur was the second king of the Third Dynasty of Ur. He reigned for 48 years, from c. 2094 – c. 2046 BC (Middle Chronology) or possibly c. 2030 – 1982 BC ( Short Chronology). His accomplishme ...
is said to have raided Lullubi at least 9 times; by the time of
Amar-Sin Amar-Sin ( akk, : '' DAmar D Sîn'', after the Moon God Sîn", the "𒀭" being a silent honorific for "Divine"), initially misread as Bur-Sin (c. 2046-2037 BC middle chronology, or possibly ca. 1982–1973 BC short chronology) was the third rule ...
, Lullubians formed a contingent in the military of Ur, suggesting that the region was then under Neo-
Sumer Sumer () is the earliest known civilization in the historical region of southern Mesopotamia (south-central Iraq), emerging during the Chalcolithic and early Bronze Ages between the sixth and fifth millennium BC. It is one of the cradles of c ...
ian control. Another famous
rock relief A rock relief or rock-cut relief is a relief sculpture carved on solid or "living rock" such as a cliff, rather than a detached piece of stone. They are a category of rock art, and sometimes found as part of, or in conjunction with, ro ...
depicting the Lullubian king Anubanini with the Assyrian-Babylonian goddess
Ishtar Inanna, also sux, 𒀭𒊩𒌆𒀭𒈾, nin-an-na, label=none is an ancient Mesopotamian goddess of love, war, and fertility. She is also associated with beauty, sex, divine justice, and political power. She was originally worshiped in S ...
, captives in tow, is now thought to date to the Ur-III period; however, a later Babylonian legendary retelling of the exploits of Sargon the Great mentions Anubanini as one of his opponents.


Babylonian and Assyrian interactions

In the following (second) millennium BC, the term "''Lullubi''" or "''Lullu''" seems to have become a generic Babylonian/
Assyria Assyria (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , romanized: ''māt Aššur''; syc, ܐܬܘܪ, ʾāthor) was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization which existed as a city-state at times controlling regional territories in the indigenous lands of the A ...
n term for "highlander", while the original region of Lullubi was also known as
Zamua Zamua (also Mazamua) was an ancient Pre-Iranian kingdom, corresponding with the earlier kingdom of Lullubi,''The Cambridge History of Iran'', Volume 2, (1985) Cambridge University Press, p. 59Direct link Last retrieved 11.12.2013 which stretched fr ...
. However, the "land of Lullubi" makes a reappearance in the late 12th century BC, when both
Nebuchadnezzar I Nebuchadnezzar I or Nebuchadrezzar I (), reigned 1121–1100 BC, was the fourth king of the Second Dynasty of Isin and Fourth Dynasty of Babylon. He ruled for 22 years according to the ''Babylonian King List C'', and was the most prominent monar ...
of Babylon (in c. 1120 BC) and
Tiglath-Pileser I Tiglath-Pileser I (; from the Hebraic form of akk, , Tukultī-apil-Ešarra, "my trust is in the son of Ešarra") was a king of Assyria during the Middle Assyrian period (1114–1076 BC). According to Georges Roux, Tiglath-Pileser was "one of t ...
of Assyria (in 1113 BC) claim to have subdued it. Neo-Assyrian kings of the following centuries also recorded campaigns and conquests in the area of Lullubum /
Zamua Zamua (also Mazamua) was an ancient Pre-Iranian kingdom, corresponding with the earlier kingdom of Lullubi,''The Cambridge History of Iran'', Volume 2, (1985) Cambridge University Press, p. 59Direct link Last retrieved 11.12.2013 which stretched fr ...
. Most notably, Ashur-nasir-pal II had to suppress a revolt among the Lullubian / Zamuan chiefs in 881 BC, during which they constructed a wall in the Bazian pass (between modern
Kirkuk Kirkuk ( ar, كركوك, ku, کەرکووک, translit=Kerkûk, , tr, Kerkük) is a city in Iraq, serving as the capital of the Kirkuk Governorate, located north of Baghdad. The city is home to a diverse population of Turkmens, Arabs, Kurds, ...
and
Sulaymaniyah Sulaymaniyah, also spelled as Slemani ( ku, سلێمانی, Silêmanî, ar, السليمانية, as-Sulaymāniyyah), is a city in the east of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq, not far from the Iran–Iraq border. It is surrounded by the Azmar, Go ...
) in a failed attempt to keep the Assyrians out. They were said to have had 19 walled cities in their land, as well as a large supply of horses, cattle, metals, textiles and wine, which were carried off by Ashur-nasir-pal. Local chiefs or governors of the Zamua region continued to be mentioned down to the end of
Esarhaddon Esarhaddon, also spelled Essarhaddon, Assarhaddon and Ashurhaddon (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , also , meaning " Ashur has given me a brother"; Biblical Hebrew: ''ʾĒsar-Ḥaddōn'') was the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from the death of his ...
's reign (669 BC).


Representations

In depictions of them, the Lullubi are represented as warlike mountain people. The Lullubi are often shown bare-chested and wearing animal skins. They have short beards, their hair is long and worn in a thick braid, as can be seen on the
Victory Stele of Naram-Sin The Victory Stele of Naram-Sin is a stele that dates to approximately 2254–2218 BC, in the time of the Akkadian Empire, and is now at the Louvre in Paris. The relief measures 200cm in height (6' 7") and was carved in pink limestone, with cunei ...
."The hair of the Lullubi is long and worn in a thick braid. They wear animal skins, while the Akkadian soldiers wear the proper attire for battle, helmets and military tunics." in


Rulers

Rulers of the Lullubi kingdom:Qashqai, 2011.Legrain, 1922; Cameron, 1936; D’yakonov, 1956; The Cambridge History of Iran; Hinz, 1972; The Cambridge Ancient History; Majidzadeh, 1991; Majidzadeh, 1997. # Immashkush (c. 2400 BC) # Anubanini (c. 2350 BC) he ordered to make an inscription on the rock nea
Sar-e Pol-e Zahab
#
Satuni Satuni, or Sutuni ( akk, 𒊓𒌅𒉌: ''Sa-tu-ni''), was a king or prince of the kingdom of Lullubi c. 2270 BC. Satuni was defeated by Sargon's grandson Naram Sin, a defeat which is mentioned in the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin: File:Naram- ...
(c. 2270 BC contemporary with Naram-Sin king of
Akkad Akkad may refer to: *Akkad (city), the capital of the Akkadian Empire *Akkadian Empire, the first ancient empire of Mesopotamia *Akkad SC, Iraqi football club People with the name *Abbas el-Akkad, Egyptian writer *Abdulrahman Akkad, Syrian LGBT act ...
and
Khita Khita, sometimes Hita in Elamite ( ''hi-ta-a''), was governor of Susa and the 11th king of the Awan Dynasty of Elam, around 2280 BCE. He was most likely the grandfather of the famous Elamite ruler Kutik-Inshushinak, who succeeded him on the thro ...
king of
Awan Awan may refer to: Places * Awan (ancient city), a city-state in Elam in the 3rd millennium BCE * Awan (region), a town in Guna district, Madhya Pradesh, India * Awan, Bhulath, a village in Kapurthala district, Punjab, India, Punjab, Pakistan * ...
) # Irib (c. 2037 BC) # Darianam (c. 2000 BC) #
Ikki Ikki may refer to: *''Ikki'', revolts against samurai rule in 15th and 16th century Japan **Ikkō-ikki, ''ikki'' revolts organized by Jōdo Shinshū Buddhists ***Kaga ikki, an ''Ikkō-ikki'' break-away warrior and peasant confederacy based in Kaga ...
(precise dates unknown) # Tar ... duni (precise dates unknown) son of Ikki. His inscription is found not far from the inscription of Anubanini. # Nur-Adad (c. 881 – 880 BC) # Zabini (c. 881 BC) # Hubaia (c. 830 BC) vassal of Assyrians # Dada (c. 715 BC) # Larkutla (c. 675 BC)


Lullubi rock reliefs

Various Lullubian reliefs can be seen in the area of
Sar-e Pol-e Zohab Sarpol-e Zahab ( fa, سرپل ذهاب, ''Sarpole Zahâb''; ku, Serpêllî Zehaw, ; also romanized as Sarpol-e Z̄ahāb, Sar-e Pol-e Z̄ahāb, and Sar-ī-Pūl Zūhāb; also known as Pol-e Z̄ahāb, Sarpole-Zahab, Pol-e Z̄ohāb, Sarī-Pūl, and ...
, the best preserved of which is the
Anubanini rock relief The Anubanini petroglyph, also called Sar-e Pol-e Zohab II or Sarpol-i Zohab relief, is a rock relief from the Akkadian Empire period (circa 2300 BC) or the Isin-Larsa period (early second millennium BC) and is located in Kermanshah Province, Ir ...
. They all show a ruler trampling an enemy, and most also show a deity facing the ruler. Another relief can be found about 200 meters away, in a style similar to the Anubanini relief, but this time with a beardless ruler. The attribution to a specific ruler remains uncertain.


Anubanini rock relief

File:Anubanini Rock Relief 2.jpg, The relief is located on the top of a cliff towering over the village of
Sarpol-e Zahab Sarpol-e Zahab ( fa, سرپل ذهاب, ''Sarpole Zahâb''; ku, Serpêllî Zehaw, ; also romanized as Sarpol-e Z̄ahāb, Sar-e Pol-e Z̄ahāb, and Sar-ī-Pūl Zūhāb; also known as Pol-e Z̄ahāb, Sarpole-Zahab, Pol-e Z̄ohāb, Sarī-Pūl, and ...
. A second relief (
Parthian Empire The Parthian Empire (), also known as the Arsacid Empire (), was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Iran from 247 BC to 224 AD. Its latter name comes from its founder, Arsaces I, who led the Parni tribe in conque ...
period) appears below. File:Anubanini_Rock_Relief_1.jpg,
Anubanini rock relief The Anubanini petroglyph, also called Sar-e Pol-e Zohab II or Sarpol-i Zohab relief, is a rock relief from the Akkadian Empire period (circa 2300 BC) or the Isin-Larsa period (early second millennium BC) and is located in Kermanshah Province, Ir ...
at
Sarpol-e Zahab Sarpol-e Zahab ( fa, سرپل ذهاب, ''Sarpole Zahâb''; ku, Serpêllî Zehaw, ; also romanized as Sarpol-e Z̄ahāb, Sar-e Pol-e Z̄ahāb, and Sar-ī-Pūl Zūhāb; also known as Pol-e Z̄ahāb, Sarpole-Zahab, Pol-e Z̄ohāb, Sarī-Pūl, and ...
, also called Sarpol-e Zahab II. Anubanini relief constituents King Anubanini.jpg, King Anubanini. Anubanini relief constituents Ishtar.jpg, Goddess
Ishtar Inanna, also sux, 𒀭𒊩𒌆𒀭𒈾, nin-an-na, label=none is an ancient Mesopotamian goddess of love, war, and fertility. She is also associated with beauty, sex, divine justice, and political power. She was originally worshiped in S ...
. Anubanini relief constituents prisoners.jpg, Prisoners of the Lullubis (detail). Anubanini relief constituents group of prisoners and king.jpg, Prisoners of the Lullubis and their king (detail). Anubanini relief constituents prisoner king.jpg, Prisoner king (detail). He appears to be wearing a crown. Anubanini relief constituents Akkadian inscription.jpg, Anubanini rock relief Akkadian inscription.


Other Lullubi reliefs

File:Sar-e Pol-e Zahab, relief IV.jpg, Sar-e Pol-e Zahab, relief I. Beardless warrior with axe, trampling a foe. Sundisk above. A name "Zaba(zuna), son of ..." can be read. This is possibly the son of
Iddin-Sin Iddin-Sin ( akk, 𒀭𒄿𒋾𒀭𒂗𒍪: '' DI-ti-n Sîn'') was a King (𒈗 ''Šàr'', pronounced ''Shar'') of the Kingdom of Simurrum around 2000 to 1900 BCE. Simurrum was an important city state of the Mesopotamian area, during the period ...
, a ruler of the Kingdom of
Simurrum The Simurrum Kingdom ( akk, 𒋛𒈬𒌨𒊑𒅎: ''Si-mu-ur-ri-im'') was an important city state of the Mesopotamian area from around 2000 BCE to 1500 BCE, during the period of the Akkadian Empire down to Ur III. The Simurrum Kingdom disappears fr ...
. File:Sar-e Pol-e Zahab, relief II.jpg, Sar-e Pol-e Zahab, relief III. Beardless warrior trampling a foe, facing a goddess. File:Sar-e Pol-e Zahab, relief III.jpg, Sar-e Pol-e Zahab, relief IV. Beardless warrior trampling a foe, facing a goddess. File:Belula_Pass_Rock_Relief.jpg, Relief of Tardunni, a possible Lullubi ruler, also holding weapons and trampling foes, with an inscription in
Akkadian Akkadian or Accadian may refer to: * Akkadians, inhabitants of the Akkadian Empire * Akkadian language, an extinct Eastern Semitic language * Akkadian literature, literature in this language * Akkadian cuneiform Cuneiform is a logo- syllabi ...
. File:Detail, a dead or dying Lullubian warrior. Darband-i Gawr rock-relief, Mt. Qaradagh, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq, 2200-2000 BCE.jpg, Detail, a dead or dying Lullubian warrior. Darband-i Gawr rock-relief, Mt. Qaradagh, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq, 2200-2000 BCE File:Detail, a dead or dying Lullubian warrior, Darband-i Gawr rock-relief, Mt. Qaradagh, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq, 2200-2000 BCE.jpg, Detail, a dead or dying Lullubian warrior, Darband-i Gawr rock-relief, Mt. Qaradagh, Sulaymaniyah, Iraq, 2200-2000 BCE


See also

* Anobanini rock relief *
Zamua Zamua (also Mazamua) was an ancient Pre-Iranian kingdom, corresponding with the earlier kingdom of Lullubi,''The Cambridge History of Iran'', Volume 2, (1985) Cambridge University Press, p. 59Direct link Last retrieved 11.12.2013 which stretched fr ...
* Tell Kunara


References


Sources


Sar-e Pol-e Zahab

Lullubi
* Qashqai, Hamidreza, Chronicle of early Iran history, Tehran, Avegan press, 2011 (in Persian: گاهنمای سپیده دم تاریخ در ایران ) * Cameron, George, "History of Early Iran", Chicago, 1936 (repr., Chicago, 1969; tr. E.-J. Levin, L’histoire de l’Iran antique, Paris, 1937; tr. H. Anusheh, ایران در سپیده دم تاریخ, Tehran, 1993) * D’yakonov, I. M., "Istoriya Midii ot drevenĭshikh vremen do kontsa IV beka de e.E" (The history of Media from ancient times to the end of the 4th century BCE), Moscow and Leningrad, 1956; tr. Karim Kešāvarz as Tāriḵ-e Mād, Tehran, 1966. * The Cambridge History of Iran * Hinz, W., "The Lost World of Elam", London, 1972 (tr. F. Firuznia, دنیای گمشده ایلام, Tehran, 1992) * The Cambridge Ancient History * Majidzadeh, Yusef, "History and civilization of Elam", Tehran, Iran University Press, 1991. * Majidzadeh, Yusef, "History and civilization of Mesopotamia", Tehran, Iran University Press, 1997, vol.1.
Legrain, Leon, "Historical Fragments", Philadelphia, The University of Pennsylvania Museum Publications of the Babylonian Section, vol. XIII, 1922.

Vallat, Francois. Elam: The History of Elam. Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. VIII pp. 301-313. London/New York, 1998.
{{Iran topics Akkadian Empire Ancient history of Iran History of Lorestan Province Unclassified languages of Asia