The 1830 Protocol of London was a treaty signed between the
Kingdom of France
The Kingdom of France ( fro, Reaume de France; frm, Royaulme de France; french: link=yes, Royaume de France) is the historiographical name or umbrella term given to various political entities of France in the medieval and early modern period. ...
, the
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was an empire and the final period of the Russian monarchy from 1721 to 1917, ruling across large parts of Eurasia. It succeeded the Tsardom of Russia following the Treaty of Nystad, which ended the Great Northern War. ...
, and the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was a sovereign state in the British Isles that existed between 1801 and 1922, when it included all of Ireland. It was established by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the Kingdom of Great B ...
on February 3, 1830. It was the first official, international diplomatic act recognizing
Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders with ...
as a sovereign and independent state, with all the rights - political, administrative, and commercial - that derived from its independence, which would extend south of the border defined by the rivers
Achelous
In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Achelous (also Acheloos or Acheloios) (; Ancient Greek: Ἀχελώϊος, and later , ''Akhelôios'') was the god associated with the Achelous River, the largest river in Greece. According to Hesiod, he ...
and
Spercheios
The Spercheios (, ''Sperkheiós''), also known as the Spercheus from its Latin name, is a river in Phthiotis in central Greece. It is long, and its drainage area is . It was worshipped as a god in the ancient Greek religion and appears in some c ...
. The first governor of the
newly-formed state (1830-1831) was
Ioannis Kapodistrias
Count Ioannis Antonios Kapodistrias (10 or 11 February 1776 – 9 October 1831), sometimes anglicized as John Capodistrias ( el, Κόμης Ιωάννης Αντώνιος Καποδίστριας, Komis Ioannis Antonios Kapodistrias; russian: ...
, who had already previously served as governor of Greece in 1828 following a resolution of the
Third National Assembly at Troezen
The Third Greek National Assembly at Troezen ( el, Γʹ Εθνοσυνέλευση της Τροιζήνας) was convened during the latter stages of the Greek Revolution.
Convening of the Assembly
The long-delayed Third National Assembly was i ...
.
The London Protocol also determined that the Greek state would be a monarchy and its ruler would have the title "Ruler Sovereign of Greece". For the position of monarch, the contracting countries initially selected
Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
Prince Leopold Franz Julius of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (Vienna, 31 January 1824 – Vienna, 20 May 1884) was a German prince of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha-Koháry.
Born ''Prince Leopold Franz Julius of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, Duke in Sax ...
(later elected Leopold I, King of the Belgians) who, despite his initial acceptance, ultimately declined their proposal.
After the Leopold's decision to decline the offer of the Greek throne and the assassination of Kapodistrias, a new treaty, signed April 25 / May 7, 1832, named the 17-year-old
Prince Otto of Bavaria as the King of Greece and designated the new state the
Kingdom of Greece
The Kingdom of Greece ( grc, label=Greek, Βασίλειον τῆς Ἑλλάδος ) was established in 1832 and was the successor state to the First Hellenic Republic. It was internationally recognised by the Treaty of Constantinople, where ...
. The selection of Otto as king, which was influenced by the philhellenism of his father,
King Ludwig I
King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen, which title is also given to the consort of a king.
*In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contemporary indigenous peoples, the ti ...
of
Bavaria
Bavaria ( ; ), officially the Free State of Bavaria (german: Freistaat Bayern, link=no ), is a state in the south-east of Germany. With an area of , Bavaria is the largest German state by land area, comprising roughly a fifth of the total lan ...
, was not fully agreed upon the three great powers, notably the United Kingdom.
Course to the Protocol of Independence
From George Canning to the
Battle of Navarino
The Battle of Navarino was a naval battle fought on 20 October (O. S. 8 October) 1827, during the Greek War of Independence (1821–29), in Navarino Bay (modern Pylos), on the west coast of the Peloponnese peninsula, in the Ionian Sea. Allied fo ...
After 1823, due to UK Prime Minister
George Canning, the Greek issue appeared in European diplomacy, as the main intention of the British Foreign Secretary was the international recognition of Greece, in order to stop Russia's route towards the
Aegean Sea
The Aegean Sea ; tr, Ege Denizi (Greek language, Greek: Αιγαίο Πέλαγος: "Egéo Pélagos", Turkish language, Turkish: "Ege Denizi" or "Adalar Denizi") is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea between Europe and Asia. It ...
.
*''January 1824:'' Russia proposed the Plan of the Three Departments: Three principalities would be created according to the model of the Danube Principalities: Eastern Greece,
Epirus
sq, Epiri rup, Epiru
, native_name_lang =
, settlement_type = Historical region
, image_map = Epirus antiquus tabula.jpg
, map_alt =
, map_caption = Map of ancient Epirus by Heinrich ...
and
Aetolia-Acarnania
Aetolia-Acarnania ( el, Αιτωλοακαρνανία, ''Aitoloakarnanía'', ) is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the geographic region of Central Greece and the administrative region of West Greece. A combination of the histor ...
,
Peloponnese
The Peloponnese (), Peloponnesus (; el, Πελοπόννησος, Pelopónnēsos,(), or Morea is a peninsula and geographic regions of Greece, geographic region in southern Greece. It is connected to the central part of the country by the Isthmu ...
and
Crete
Crete ( el, Κρήτη, translit=, Modern: , Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, and ...
. This plan did not satisfy the Greeks who were fighting for
independence
Independence is a condition of a person, nation, country, or state in which residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory. The opposite of independence is the statu ...
.
*''June 1825:'' Act of Vassalage. Under the pressure of
Ibrahim
Ibrahim ( ar, إبراهيم, links=no ') is the Arabic name for Abraham, a Biblical patriarch and prophet in Islam.
For the Islamic view of Ibrahim, see Abraham in Islam.
Ibrahim may also refer to:
* Ibrahim (name), a name (and list of people ...
's victories in the Peloponnese, the
Koundouriotis government asked the British government to choose a monarch for Greece, stating its preference for
Leopold of Saxe-Coburg & Gotha. With this Act, they essentially asked for Greece to become an English protectorate, as a sign of confidence in England. George Canning, however, refused to accept the Act.
*''April 1826:'' The
Protocol of St. Petersburg was signed, which referred to an Anglo-Russian cooperation in resolving the Greek Issue by providing autonomy to the Greeks. In fact, this is the first text that recognizes the political existence of Greece.
The terms of the
St. Petersburg Protocol were repeated in the Treaty of London (July 1827), which was also signed by France. A secret "supplementary" article also provided for military coercion on both sides, mainly Turkey, in order to accept the terms of the Treaty.
This article would lead to the
Battle of Navarino
The Battle of Navarino was a naval battle fought on 20 October (O. S. 8 October) 1827, during the Greek War of Independence (1821–29), in Navarino Bay (modern Pylos), on the west coast of the Peloponnese peninsula, in the Ionian Sea. Allied fo ...
(7/20 October 1827). The defeat of the Turkish fleet by the fleets of the three
Great Powers
A great power is a sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power in ...
(England, France, Russia) caused excitement and gave hope to the Greeks, although the European powers only spoke for autonomy - not yet independence - of certain regions, so as to appease the area.
Change of English policy and delineation of the Greek borders
*''September 11/23, 1828:''
Kapodistrias, as Governor of Greece, sent a confidential Memorandum to the three Powers, protesting against the very limited borders of the new state, which he foresaw would be proposed by their representatives. He currently avoided raising the issue of independence.
*''November 1828:'' As the British Foreign Secretary, Aberdeen (who succeeded
George Canning after his death) recommended the first London Protocol be signed on 4/16 November with unfavorable terms for Greece: only the Peloponnese and the Cyclades were granted to Greece, a fact that provoked the strongest reaction of Kapodistrias.
*''March 1829:'' Disputes among the three Powers and the exploitation of their competition by Kapodistrias led to new negotiations at the London Conference and the signing of the second Protocol of London. With this Protocol of March 10/22 1829, it was determined to propose to the Ottomans the following:
**a. Border line at the height of
Ambracian Gulf
The Ambracian Gulf, also known as the Gulf of Arta or the Gulf of Actium, and in some official documents as the Amvrakikos Gulf ( el, Αμβρακικός κόλπος, translit=Amvrakikos kolpos), is a gulf of the Ionian Sea in northwestern Gree ...
–
Pagasetic Gulf
The Pagasetic Gulf ( el, Παγασητικός κόλπος, Pagasitikós kólpos) is a rounded gulf (max. depth 102 metres) in the Magnesia regional unit (east central Greece) that is formed by the Mount Pelion peninsula. It is connected with ...
and inclusion of the island of
Evia and the
Cyclades
The Cyclades (; el, Κυκλάδες, ) are an island group in the Aegean Sea, southeast of mainland Greece and a former administrative prefecture of Greece. They are one of the island groups which constitute the Aegean archipelago. The nam ...
in the new state
**b. Sovereignty of the
Sublime Porte
The Sublime Porte, also known as the Ottoman Porte or High Porte ( ota, باب عالی, Bāb-ı Ālī or ''Babıali'', from ar, باب, bāb, gate and , , ), was a synecdoche for the central government of the Ottoman Empire.
History
The nam ...
in the Greek state with an annual tax of 1,500,000
kuruş
Kuruş ( ; ), also gurush, ersh, gersh, grush, grosha, and grosi, are all names for currency denominations in and around the territories formerly part of the Ottoman Empire. The variation in the name stems from the different languages it is us ...
to the Sultan.
**c. Hereditary ruler of Greece, a Christian one, foreign to the royal families of the three powers, who would be elected "by the consent of the three Courts and the Ottoman Porte".
Russian-Turkish War (1828-1829) and Treaty of Adrianople
The
Russian-Turkish War
The Russo-Turkish wars (or Ottoman–Russian wars) were a series of twelve wars fought between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 20th centuries. It was one of the longest series of military conflicts in European histor ...
, was a series of twelve conflicts between the Russian Empire and the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire as well as the later additions France and the British Empire allying with Russia. After the ninth war ended with the defeat of Turkey in 1829, Russia forced Turkey to sign the
Treaty of Adrianople, also known as the Treaty of Edirne (September 14, 1829). It also had to accept the following in Article 10 of this treaty.
which ended with the defeat of Turkey, Russia forced it to sign the (September 14, 1829) and accept (with Article 10):
a. The
Treaty of London (6 July 1827), which was to cease hostilities as Greece revolted against rule under the Ottoman Empire. Its base arrangement was for Greece to be made a dependency of the Ottoman Empire and would pay tribute to reflect that. But later additions were made that stated Turkey had one month to accept it and if the Sultan refuse armistice the allies would use force.
b. The
Protocol of March 1829, an earlier creation of the London Protocol (1830). It defined the borderline of the new Greek state alongside the
Ambracian Gulf
The Ambracian Gulf, also known as the Gulf of Arta or the Gulf of Actium, and in some official documents as the Amvrakikos Gulf ( el, Αμβρακικός κόλπος, translit=Amvrakikos kolpos), is a gulf of the Ionian Sea in northwestern Gree ...
,
including the Peloponnese and Continental Greece. Greece would be made into a separate state but recognise the Sultan's right to rule and pay annual tribute.
The Treaty of Adrianople also stated that the Ottoman Empire would have suzerain rule over the
Danube
The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , pa ...
states of
Moldova
Moldova ( , ; ), officially the Republic of Moldova ( ro, Republica Moldova), is a Landlocked country, landlocked country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east, and south. The List of states ...
and
Wallachia
Wallachia or Walachia (; ro, Țara Românească, lit=The Romanian Land' or 'The Romanian Country, ; archaic: ', Romanian Cyrillic alphabet: ) is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and so ...
. But also permitted Russia to take control of the towns of Anape and Poti in
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range, have historically ...
and Russian traders who were in Turkey were placed under the jurisdiction of the Russian Ambassador.
Another change of English politics and the proposal of Independence
Once the
Russian-Turkish War
The Russo-Turkish wars (or Ottoman–Russian wars) were a series of twelve wars fought between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 20th centuries. It was one of the longest series of military conflicts in European histor ...
had ended, in which Russia won against Turkey of the Ottoman Empire, Russia sought to resolve Greece's wish to become a sovereign nation. Russia forced the Sultan to agree to grant autonomy to Greece and accept to terms regarding trade in the
Eastern Mediterranean
Eastern Mediterranean is a loose definition of the eastern approximate half, or third, of the Mediterranean Sea, often defined as the countries around the Levantine Sea.
It typically embraces all of that sea's coastal zones, referring to communi ...
that were favourable to Russia such as the Russian Ambassador maintaining authority on their own merchants in Turkey and access to the
Caucasus
The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, mainly comprising Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and parts of Southern Russia. The Caucasus Mountains, including the Greater Caucasus range, have historically ...
towns. Britain, who was involved in helping the other powers liberate Greece, had their own terms as well. The purpose of the British policy was then to create an independent Greek state that would close the roads to Russia in the
Aegean and at the same time reduce Russian influence in the newly formed Greek state. At the same time, however, they sought to limit the borders, especially in
Western Greece
Western Greece Region ( el, Περιφέρεια Δυτικής Ελλάδας, translit=Periféria Dhitikís Elládhas, ) is one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It comprises the western part of continental Greece and the northw ...
, so that there would be a safe distance between the new state and the
Ionian Islands, which were then under British occupation. The Greek Senate asked the allies that the northern border be changed to include Mount Oxas but the allies responded that this was not possible.
Thus, a new round of negotiations were commenced, which resulted in the Protocol of Independence (22 January / 3 February 1830), also known as the London Protocol. This protocol was accepted by the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.
Participants
The plenipotentiaries of
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe b ...
,
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
and
Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...
(
Aberdeen
Aberdeen (; sco, Aiberdeen ; gd, Obar Dheathain ; la, Aberdonia) is a city in North East Scotland, and is the third most populous city in the country. Aberdeen is one of Scotland's 32 local government council areas (as Aberdeen City), and ...
,
Montmorency-Laval Montmorency-Laval is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
* Francois de Montmorency Laval, M.E.P. (1623–1708), the first Roman Catholic bishop of Quebec, appointed by Pope Alexander VII
* Mathieu Jean Felicite de Montmorency-Laval, ...
,
Leuven
Leuven (, ) or Louvain (, , ; german: link=no, Löwen ) is the capital and largest city of the province of Flemish Brabant in the Flemish Region of Belgium. It is located about east of Brussels. The municipality itself comprises the historic ...
) participated in the London negotiations and signed the Protocol of Independence, while representatives of the Greeks and Turks were absent.
All three countries aimed to increase their influence in the newly formed state while limiting the influence of their opponents.
As for Kapodistrias, it was agreed to exclude him from the negotiations due to the British suspicion of him (they considered that he was inciting a revolution in the Ionian Islands). Since the Powers did not even inform him about the course of the negotiations, he warned them that he would not accept unfavorable terms for
Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders with ...
and insisted on his country's right to express itself at the Conference.
As for the Sultan, he had agreed to sign everything that would be decided at the
London
London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a majo ...
conference for the implementation of peace and the end of the war.
Signing of the protocol
In th
11 articles of the Protocol an independent Greek state is solemnly recognized with a restriction of the borders on the line of Acheloos-Sperchios.
Crete
Crete ( el, Κρήτη, translit=, Modern: , Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, and ...
and
Samos
Samos (, also ; el, Σάμος ) is a Greek island in the eastern Aegean Sea, south of Chios, north of Patmos and the Dodecanese, and off the coast of western Turkey, from which it is separated by the -wide Mycale Strait. It is also a separate ...
were not adjudged to
Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders with ...
, but only
Euboea
Evia (, ; el, Εύβοια ; grc, Εὔβοια ) or Euboia (, ) is the second-largest Greek island in area and population, after Crete. It is separated from Boeotia in mainland Greece by the narrow Euripus Strait (only at its narrowest poin ...
, the
Cyclades
The Cyclades (; el, Κυκλάδες, ) are an island group in the Aegean Sea, southeast of mainland Greece and a former administrative prefecture of Greece. They are one of the island groups which constitute the Aegean archipelago. The nam ...
and the
Sporades
The (Northern) Sporades (; el, Βόρειες Σποράδες, ) are an archipelago along the east coast of Greece, northeast of the island of Euboea,"Skyros - Britannica Concise" (description), Britannica Concise, 2006, webpageEB-Skyrosnotes " ...
. It was only Evia, the Cyclades and the Sporades that were adjudged to
Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders with ...
but not Crete and Samos. With a second protocol, on the same day,
Leopold
Leopold may refer to:
People
* Leopold (given name)
* Leopold (surname)
Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional characters
* Leopold (''The Simpsons''), Superintendent Chalmers' assistant on ''The Simpsons''
* Leopold Bloom, the protagonist o ...
was elected as the "Ruler Sovereign of Greece” and a loan was granted for the maintenance of the army that he would bring with him.
The Great Powers demanded that Greece respect the life and property of Muslims in Greek territory and withdraw Greek troops from the areas outside its borderline.
With the protocol of February 3, the war ended and the Greek state was recognized in the international community. The recognition of the independence of Greece by the three Powers and Turkey is a critical turning point in Modern Greek history.
However, these decisions would not be final in terms of borders and the person and title of sovereign. The final settlement of the Greek Issue would occur later with the international acts of 1832.
Kapodistrias's reactions and actions to improve the northern borders
On March 27 / April 8, 1830, ambassadors from Russia, Britain and France notified Greece and the Ottoman Empire of the Protocol.
The
Sultan
Sultan (; ar, سلطان ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it ...
was forced to accept the independence of Greece.
Ioannis Kapodistrias
Count Ioannis Antonios Kapodistrias (10 or 11 February 1776 – 9 October 1831), sometimes anglicized as John Capodistrias ( el, Κόμης Ιωάννης Αντώνιος Καποδίστριας, Komis Ioannis Antonios Kapodistrias; russian: ...
was once the Foreign Minister for Russia and was elected as president of Greece, arriving in 1828.
He agreed with the condition that the Turks evacuate the islands of
Attica
Attica ( el, Αττική, Ancient Greek ''Attikḗ'' or , or ), or the Attic Peninsula, is a historical region that encompasses the city of Athens, the capital of Greece and its countryside. It is a peninsula projecting into the Aegean Se ...
and
Euboea
Evia (, ; el, Εύβοια ; grc, Εὔβοια ) or Euboia (, ) is the second-largest Greek island in area and population, after Crete. It is separated from Boeotia in mainland Greece by the narrow Euripus Strait (only at its narrowest poin ...
. He also demanded the presence of foreign legislators and the provision of means to deal with the refugee problem that would be caused by the evacuation of the areas outside the borders by the Greek population. At the same time he informed
Leopold
Leopold may refer to:
People
* Leopold (given name)
* Leopold (surname)
Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional characters
* Leopold (''The Simpsons''), Superintendent Chalmers' assistant on ''The Simpsons''
* Leopold Bloom, the protagonist o ...
, who was made king of Greece, about his claims.
He also asked Leopold to embrace
Eastern Orthodoxy
Eastern Orthodoxy, also known as Eastern Orthodox Christianity, is one of the three main Branches of Christianity, branches of Chalcedonian Christianity, alongside Catholic Church, Catholicism and Protestantism.
Like the Pentarchy of the first m ...
, grant political rights to the
Greeks
The Greeks or Hellenes (; el, Έλληνες, ''Éllines'' ) are an ethnic group and nation indigenous to the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea regions, namely Greece, Cyprus, Albania, Italy, Turkey, Egypt, and, to a lesser extent, oth ...
, and work to expand the borders in order to include
Acarnania
Acarnania ( el, Ἀκαρνανία) is a region of west-central Greece that lies along the Ionian Sea, west of Aetolia, with the Achelous River for a boundary, and north of the gulf of Calydon, which is the entrance to the Gulf of Corinth. Today i ...
,
Crete
Crete ( el, Κρήτη, translit=, Modern: , Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, and ...
,
Samos
Samos (, also ; el, Σάμος ) is a Greek island in the eastern Aegean Sea, south of Chios, north of Patmos and the Dodecanese, and off the coast of western Turkey, from which it is separated by the -wide Mycale Strait. It is also a separate ...
, and
Psara
Psara ( el, Ψαρά, , ; known in ancient times as /, /) is a Greek island in the Aegean Sea. Together with the small island of Antipsara (Population 4) it forms the municipality of Psara. It is part of the Chios regional unit, which is part of ...
.
Leopold
Leopold may refer to:
People
* Leopold (given name)
* Leopold (surname)
Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional characters
* Leopold (''The Simpsons''), Superintendent Chalmers' assistant on ''The Simpsons''
* Leopold Bloom, the protagonist o ...
, however, met with the refusal of the
British government
ga, Rialtas a Shoilse gd, Riaghaltas a Mhòrachd
, image = HM Government logo.svg
, image_size = 220px
, image2 = Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom (HM Government).svg
, image_size2 = 180px
, caption = Royal Arms
, date_es ...
. A fact that led him to resign (9/21 May 1830) with the argument that he did not want to impose on the Greeks the unfavourable decisions of foreigners but also for personal reasons.
![Map Greece expansion 1832-1947-en](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Map_Greece_expansion_1832-1947-en.svg)
Kapodistrias’s internal opposition accepted the terms of the Protocol with relative satisfaction, accusing Kapodistrias of restricting borders like what Britain and Russia aimed to do.
While ruling Greece, Kapodistrias made attempts to establish central governance over Greece. He also organised tax authorities, sorted the judiciary, introduced a quarantine system to deal with typhoid fever, cholera and dysentery infections and brought the cultivation and consumption of potatoes into the country. Though his government became increasingly unpopular and was assassinated in 1831.
After the Protocol of Independence – Final regulation of the borders – Greece as a Kingdom
Leopold’s resignation in conjunction with Kapodistrias’s postponement policy led to a new Conference in July 1831 proposing to Turkey the extension of the Ambracian Gulf - Pagasetic Gulf line. Turkey was forced to accept the terms and a new protocol was finally signed (14/26 September 1831). Unfortunately, Kapodistrias was assassinated a few days later (September 27 / October 9, 1831), without being able to see the positive results of his policy.
He was killed by Konstantis and Georgios of the Mavromichalis family after Kapodistrias had ordered the imprisonment of Petrobey Mavromichalis on the front steps of the church of Saint Spyridon. After the assassination of Kapodistrias, The three powers Russia, Britain and France with the protocol of 1/13 February 1832 and the Treaty of 25 April / 7 May in the same year that Prince Otto of the House of Wittelsbatch from Bavaria would be made King of Greece after the resignation of Leopold.
The
Sultan
Sultan (; ar, سلطان ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it ...
agreed, after tough negotiations, with the signing of the
Treaty of Constantinople on 9/21 July 1832 which provided for the independence of Greece and the enlarged Pagasetic Gulf - Ambracian Gulf border.Prince Otto, newly crowned, arrived with a Regency Council in Greece in 1833 who ruled alongside the prince until he reached majority.
See also
Final treaty declaring the independence of Greece (in Greek)
References
Bibliography
* Issues of modern and contemporary history from the sources - OEDB 1991, Chapter 6
*
* Dionysios Kokkinos, The Greek Revolution, volumes I-VI, 5th edition, Melissa, Athens 1967-1969
* D.S. Konstantopoulos, Diplomatic History, vol. I, Thessaloniki 1975
*
* Dimitris Fotiadis , The Revolution of '21, volume IV, 2nd Edition, Publisher Nikos Votsis
External links
The London Protocol of 3 February 1830
{{Greek War of Independence
1830 in London
1830 treaties
1830 in the United Kingdom
Diplomacy during the Greek War of Independence
Greece–United Kingdom relations
Treaties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)
Treaties of the Bourbon Restoration
Treaties of the Russian Empire
February 1830 events
Ioannis Kapodistrias