![Listeria monocytogenes PHIL 2287 lores](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Listeria_monocytogenes_PHIL_2287_lores.jpg)
''Listeria'' is a
genus
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus com ...
of
bacteria
Bacteria (; singular: bacterium) are ubiquitous, mostly free-living organisms often consisting of one biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria were among ...
that acts as an
intracellular parasite in mammals. Until 1992, 17 species were known, each containing two subspecies. By 2020, 21 species had been identified. The genus is named in honour of the British pioneer of sterile surgery
Joseph Lister
Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister, (5 April 182710 February 1912) was a British surgeon, medical scientist, experimental pathologist and a pioneer of antiseptic surgery and preventative medicine. Joseph Lister revolutionised the craft of s ...
. ''Listeria'' species are
Gram-positive
In bacteriology, gram-positive bacteria are bacteria that give a positive result in the Gram stain test, which is traditionally used to quickly classify bacteria into two broad categories according to their type of cell wall.
Gram-positive bacte ...
,
rod-shaped
A bacillus (), also called a bacilliform bacterium or often just a rod (when the context makes the sense clear), is a rod-shaped bacterium or archaeon. Bacilli are found in many different taxonomic groups of bacteria. However, the name '' Baci ...
, and
facultatively anaerobic
A facultative anaerobic organism is an organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present, but is capable of switching to fermentation if oxygen is absent.
Some examples of facultatively anaerobic bacteria are ''Staphylococcus' ...
, and do not produce
endospore
An endospore is a dormant, tough, and non-reproductive structure produced by some bacteria in the phylum Bacillota. The name "endospore" is suggestive of a spore or seed-like form (''endo'' means 'within'), but it is not a true spore (i.e., no ...
s.
The major
human pathogen A human pathogen is a pathogen (microbe or microorganism such as a virus, bacterium, prion, or fungus) that causes disease in humans.
The human physiological defense against common pathogens (such as ''Pneumocystis'') is mainly the responsibility ...
in the genus ''Listeria'' is ''
L. monocytogenes''. It is usually the causative agent of the relatively rare bacterial disease
listeriosis
Listeriosis is a bacterial infection most commonly caused by '' Listeria monocytogenes'', although '' L. ivanovii'' and '' L. grayi'' have been reported in certain cases. Listeriosis can cause severe illness, including severe sepsis, men ...
, an
infection
An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmissible disease or communicable dise ...
caused by eating
food contaminated with the bacteria. Listeriosis can cause serious illness in
pregnant women
Pregnancy is the time during which one or more offspring develops ( gestates) inside a woman's uterus (womb). A multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins.
Pregnancy usually occurs by sexual intercourse, but ca ...
,
newborns
An infant or baby is the very young offspring of human beings. ''Infant'' (from the Latin word ''infans'', meaning 'unable to speak' or 'speechless') is a formal or specialised synonym for the common term ''baby''. The terms may also be used t ...
, adults with
weakened immune systems and the
elderly
Old age refers to ages nearing or surpassing the life expectancy of human beings, and is thus the end of the human life cycle. Terms and euphemisms for people at this age include old people, the elderly (worldwide usage), OAPs (British usage ...
, and may cause
gastroenteritis
Gastroenteritis, also known as infectious diarrhea and gastro, is an inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract including the stomach and intestine. Symptoms may include diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. Fever, lack of energy, and dehydra ...
in others who have been severely infected.
Listeriosis is a serious disease for humans; the overt form of the disease has a
case-fatality rate of around 20%. The two main clinical manifestations are
sepsis
Sepsis, formerly known as septicemia (septicaemia in British English) or blood poisoning, is a life-threatening condition that arises when the body's response to infection causes injury to its own tissues and organs. This initial stage is follo ...
and
meningitis
Meningitis is acute or chronic inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, collectively called the meninges. The most common symptoms are fever, headache, and neck stiffness. Other symptoms include confusion or ...
. Meningitis is often complicated by
encephalitis
Encephalitis is inflammation of the brain. The severity can be variable with symptoms including reduction or alteration in consciousness, headache, fever, confusion, a stiff neck, and vomiting. Complications may include seizures, hallucinations, ...
, when it is known as
meningoencephalitis
Meningoencephalitis (; from ; ; and the medical suffix ''-itis'', "inflammation"), also known as herpes meningoencephalitis, is a medical condition that simultaneously resembles both meningitis, which is an infection or inflammation of the menin ...
, a pathology that is unusual for bacterial infections. ''
L. ivanovii'' is a pathogen of
mammal
Mammals () are a group of vertebrate animals constituting the class Mammalia (), characterized by the presence of mammary glands which in females produce milk for feeding (nursing) their young, a neocortex (a region of the brain), fur or ...
s, specifically
ruminant
Ruminants (suborder Ruminantia) are ungulate, hoofed herbivorous grazing or browsing mammals that are able to acquire nutrients from plant-based food by Enteric fermentation, fermenting it in a specialized stomach prior to digestion, principally ...
s, and has rarely caused listeriosis in humans. The incubation period can vary from three to 70 days.
Background
The first documented case of listeriosis was in 1924. In the late 1920s, two researchers independently identified ''L. monocytogenes'' from animal outbreaks. They proposed the genus ''Listerella'' in honour of surgeon and early antiseptic advocate Joseph Lister, but that name was already in use for a
slime mould
Slime mold or slime mould is an informal name given to several kinds of unrelated eukaryotic organisms with a life cycle that includes a free-living single-celled stage and the formation of spores. Spores are often produced in macroscopic mu ...
and a
protozoa
Protozoa (singular: protozoan or protozoon; alternative plural: protozoans) are a group of single-celled eukaryotes, either free-living or parasitic, that feed on organic matter such as other microorganisms or organic tissues and debris. Histo ...
n. Eventually, the genus ''Listeria'' was proposed and accepted. All species within the genus ''Listeria'' are
Gram-positive
In bacteriology, gram-positive bacteria are bacteria that give a positive result in the Gram stain test, which is traditionally used to quickly classify bacteria into two broad categories according to their type of cell wall.
Gram-positive bacte ...
,
catalase
Catalase is a common enzyme found in nearly all living organisms exposed to oxygen (such as bacteria, plants, and animals) which catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. It is a very important enzyme in protecting t ...
-positive
rods and do not produce
endospore
An endospore is a dormant, tough, and non-reproductive structure produced by some bacteria in the phylum Bacillota. The name "endospore" is suggestive of a spore or seed-like form (''endo'' means 'within'), but it is not a true spore (i.e., no ...
s. The genus ''Listeria'' was classified in the family Corynebacteriaceae through the seventh edition (1957) of ''
Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology''. The
16S rRNA cataloging studies of Stackebrandt, et al. demonstrated that ''L. monocytogenes'' is a distinct taxon within the ''
Lactobacillus
''Lactobacillus'' is a genus of Gram-positive, aerotolerant anaerobes or microaerophilic, rod-shaped, non-spore-forming bacteria. Until 2020, the genus ''Lactobacillus'' comprised over 260 phylogenetically, ecologically, and metabolically diver ...
-
Bacillus
''Bacillus'' (Latin "stick") is a genus of Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria, a member of the phylum '' Bacillota'', with 266 named species. The term is also used to describe the shape (rod) of other so-shaped bacteria; and the plural ''Bacill ...
'' branch of the bacterial phylogeny constructed by Woese. In 2004, the genus was placed in the newly created family
Listeriaceae
The Listeriaceae are a family of Gram-positive bacteria. The cells are short rods and can form filaments. They are aerobic or facultative anaerobic. Spores are not formed. Some species can cause human and animal listeriosis
Listeriosis is a b ...
. The only other genus in the family is ''
Brochothrix''.
The genus ''Listeria'' is known to contain 21 species: ''L. aquatica, L. booriae, L. cornellensis, L. costaricensis, L. goaensis, L. fleischmannii, L. floridensis, L. grandensis, L. grayi, L. innocua, L. ivanovii, L. marthii, L. monocytogenes, L. newyorkensis, L. riparia, L. rocourtiae, L. seeligeri, L. thailandensis, L. valentina, L. weihenstephanensis'', and ''L. welshimeri''.
''Listeria dinitrificans'', previously thought to be part of the genus ''Listeria'', was reclassified into the new genus ''
Jonesia
''Jonesia'' is a genus of Actinomycetota
The ''Actinomycetota'' (or ''Actinobacteria'') are a phylum of all gram-positive bacteria. They can be terrestrial or aquatic. They are of great economic importance to humans because agriculture ...
''.
[M. D. Collins, S. Wallbanks, D. J. Lane, J. Shah, R. Nietupskin, J. Smida, M. Dorsch and E. Stackebrandt. Phylogenetic Analysis of the Genus ''Listeria'' Based on Reverse Transcriptase Sequencing of 16S rRNA. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. April 1991 vol. 41 no. 2 240–246] Under the microscope, ''Listeria'' species appear as small rods, which are sometimes arranged in short chains. In direct smears, they may be
coccoid, and can be mistaken for
streptococci. Longer cells may resemble
corynebacteria
''Corynebacterium'' () is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria and most are aerobic. They are bacilli (rod-shaped), and in some phases of life they are, more specifically, club-shaped, which inspired the genus name (''coryneform'' means "club-shape ...
.
Flagella
A flagellum (; ) is a hairlike appendage that protrudes from certain plant and animal sperm cells, and from a wide range of microorganisms to provide motility. Many protists with flagella are termed as flagellates.
A microorganism may have f ...
are produced at room temperature, but not at 37 °C. Hemolytic activity on blood agar has been used as a marker to distinguish ''L. monocytogenes'' from other ''Listeria'' species, but it is not an absolutely definitive criterion. Further biochemical characterization may be necessary to distinguish between the different species of ''Listeria''.
''Listeria'' can be found in soil, which can lead to vegetable contamination. Animals can be carriers. ''Listeria'' has been found in uncooked meats, uncooked vegetables, fruits including
cantaloupe
The cantaloupe, rockmelon (Australia and New Zealand, although cantaloupe is used in some states of Australia), sweet melon, or spanspek (Southern Africa) is a melon that is a variety of the muskmelon species (''Cucumis melo'') from the fami ...
and apples, pasteurized or
unpasteurized milk, foods made from milk, and processed foods. Pasteurization and sufficient cooking kill ''Listeria''; however, contamination may occur after cooking and before packaging. For example, meat-processing plants producing ready-to-eat foods, such as hot dogs and deli meats, must follow extensive sanitation policies and procedures to prevent ''Listeria'' contamination.
''
Listeria monocytogenes
''Listeria monocytogenes'' is the species of pathogenic bacteria that causes the infection listeriosis. It is a facultative anaerobic bacterium, capable of surviving in the presence or absence of oxygen. It can grow and reproduce inside the host' ...
'' is commonly found in soil, stream water, sewage, plants, and food.
[ [No longer accessible. Archived version availabl]
here
] ''Listeria'' is responsible for listeriosis, a rare but potentially lethal
foodborne illness
Foodborne illness (also foodborne disease and food poisoning) is any illness resulting from the spoilage of contaminated food by pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites that contaminate food,
as well as prions (the agents of mad cow disease) ...
. The case fatality rate for those with a severe form of infection may approach 25%.
(''
Salmonellosis
Salmonellosis, more commonly known as food poisoning is a symptomatic infection caused by bacteria of the ''Salmonella'' type. It is also a food-borne disease and are defined as diseases, usually either infectious or toxic in nature, caused
by a ...
'', in comparison, has a mortality rate estimated at less than 1%.
) Although ''L. monocytogenes'' has low infectivity, it is hardy and can grow in temperatures from 4 °C (39.2 °F) (the temperature of a refrigerator) to 37 °C (98.6 °F), (the body's internal temperature).
[ Listeriosis is a serious illness, and the disease may manifest as meningitis, or affect newborns due to its ability to penetrate the endothelial layer of the ]placenta
The placenta is a temporary embryonic and later fetal organ that begins developing from the blastocyst shortly after implantation. It plays critical roles in facilitating nutrient, gas and waste exchange between the physically separate mater ...
.[
]
Pathogenesis
''Listeria'' uses the cellular machinery to move around inside the host cell. It induces directed polymerization of actin
Actin is a family of globular multi-functional proteins that form microfilaments in the cytoskeleton, and the thin filaments in muscle fibrils. It is found in essentially all eukaryotic cells, where it may be present at a concentration of over ...
by the ActA
Acta or ACTA may refer to:
Institutions
* Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement, an intellectual property trade agreement
* Administrative Council for Terminal Attachments, a standards organization for terminal equipment such as registered jacks
* A ...
transmembrane protein
A transmembrane protein (TP) is a type of integral membrane protein that spans the entirety of the cell membrane. Many transmembrane proteins function as gateways to permit the transport of specific substances across the membrane. They frequentl ...
, thus pushing the bacterial cell around.
''Listeria monocytogenes'', for example, encodes virulence genes that are thermoregulate
Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is very different. A thermoconforming organism, by contrast, simply adopts the surrounding temperature ...
d. The expression of virulence factor is optimal at 39 °C, and is controlled by a transcriptional activator, PrfA, whose expression is thermoregulated by the PrfA thermoregulator UTR
The PrfA thermoregulator UTR is an RNA thermometer found in the 5' UTR of the ''prfA'' gene. In ''Listeria monocytogenes'', virulence genes are maximally expressed at 37 °C (human body temperature) but are almost silent at 30 °C. The ...
element. At low temperatures, the PrfA transcript is not translated due to structural elements near the ribosome binding site. As the bacteria infect the host, the temperature of the host denatures the structure and allows translation initiation for the virulent genes.
The majority of ''Listeria'' bacteria are attacked by the immune system
The immune system is a network of biological processes that protects an organism from diseases. It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, as well as cancer cells and objects such as wood splinte ...
before they are able to cause infection
An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmissible disease or communicable dise ...
. Those that escape the immune system's initial response, however, spread through intracellular mechanisms, which protects them from circulating immune factors (AMI).[
To invade, ''Listeria'' induces macrophage ]phagocytic
Phagocytosis () is the process by which a cell uses its plasma membrane to engulf a large particle (≥ 0.5 μm), giving rise to an internal compartment called the phagosome. It is one type of endocytosis. A cell that performs phagocytosis is ...
uptake by displaying D-galactose in their teichoic acid
Teichoic acids (''cf.'' Greek τεῖχος, ''teīkhos'', "wall", to be specific a fortification wall, as opposed to τοῖχος, ''toīkhos'', a regular wall) are bacterial copolymers of glycerol phosphate or ribitol phosphate and carbohydr ...
s that are then bound by the macrophage
Macrophages (abbreviated as M φ, MΦ or MP) ( el, large eaters, from Greek ''μακρός'' (') = large, ''φαγεῖν'' (') = to eat) are a type of white blood cell of the immune system that engulfs and digests pathogens, such as cancer cel ...
's polysaccharide
Polysaccharides (), or polycarbohydrates, are the most abundant carbohydrates found in food. They are long chain polymeric carbohydrates composed of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages. This carbohydrate can react with wa ...
s. Other important adhesins are the internalin Internalins are surface proteins found on ''Listeria monocytogenes''. They exist in two known forms, InlA and InlB. They are used by the bacteria to invade mammalian cells via cadherins transmembrane proteins and Met receptors respectively. The ex ...
s.[ ''Listeria'' uses internalin A and B to bind to cellular receptors. Internalin A binds to E-cadherin, while internalin B binds to the cell's Met receptors. If both of these receptors have a high enough affinity to ''Listeria''s internalin A and B, then it will be able to invade the cell via an indirect zipper mechanism. Once phagocytosed, the bacterium is encapsulated by the host cell's acidic ]phagolysosome
In biology, a phagolysosome, or endolysosome, is a cytoplasmic body formed by the fusion of a phagosome with a lysosome in a process that occurs during phagocytosis. Formation of phagolysosomes is essential for the intracellular destruction of mic ...
organelle.[ ''Listeria'', however, escapes the phagolysosome by lysing the vacuole's entire membrane with secreted ]hemolysin
Hemolysins or haemolysins are lipids and proteins that cause lysis of red blood cells by disrupting the cell membrane. Although the lytic activity of some microbe-derived hemolysins on red blood cells may be of great importance for nutrient acqu ...
, now characterized as the exotoxin listeriolysin O
Listeriolysin O (LLO) is a hemolysin produced by the bacterium ''Listeria monocytogenes'', the pathogen responsible for causing listeriosis. The toxin may be considered a virulence factor, since it is crucial for the virulence of ''L. monocytogenes ...
.[ The bacteria then replicate inside the host cell's cytoplasm.][
''Listeria'' must then navigate to the cell's periphery to spread the infection to other cells. Outside the body, ''Listeria'' has ]flagella
A flagellum (; ) is a hairlike appendage that protrudes from certain plant and animal sperm cells, and from a wide range of microorganisms to provide motility. Many protists with flagella are termed as flagellates.
A microorganism may have f ...
r-driven motility, sometimes described as a "tumbling motility". However, at 37 °C, flagella cease to develop and the bacterium instead usurps the host cell's cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a complex, dynamic network of interlinking protein filaments present in the cytoplasm of all cells, including those of bacteria and archaea. In eukaryotes, it extends from the cell nucleus to the cell membrane and is compos ...
to move.[ ''Listeria'', inventively, polymerizes an actin tail or "comet",][ from actin monomers in the host's cytoplasm] with the promotion of virulence factor ActA.[ The comet forms in a polar manner] and aids the bacterial migration to the host cell's outer membrane. Gelsolin, an actin filament severing protein, localizes at the tail of ''Listeria'' and accelerates the bacterium's motility.[ Once at the cell surface, the actin-propelled ''Listeria'' pushes against the cell's membrane to form protrusions called filopods][ or "rockets". The protrusions are guided by the cell's leading edge to contact adjacent cells, which then engulf the ''Listeria'' rocket and the process is repeated, perpetuating the infection.][ Once phagocytosed, the bacterium is never again extracellular: it is an intracellular parasite][ like '' S. flexneri,'' '']Rickettsia
''Rickettsia'' is a genus of nonmotile, gram-negative, nonspore-forming, highly pleomorphic bacteria that may occur in the forms of cocci (0.1 μm in diameter), bacilli (1–4 μm long), or threads (up to about 10 μm long). The term "rickett ...
'' spp., and ''C. trachomatis''.[
]
Epidemiology
The Center for Science in the Public Interest
The Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI) is a Washington, D.C.-based non-profit watchdog and consumer advocacy group that advocates for safer and healthier foods.
History and funding
CSPI is a consumer advocacy organization. Its f ...
has published a list of foods that have sometimes caused outbreaks of ''Listeria'': hot dogs, deli meats, milk (even if pasteurized
Pasteurization American and British English spelling differences#-ise, -ize (-isation, -ization), or pasteurisation is a process of food preservation in which packaged and non-packaged foods (such as milk and fruit juices) are treated with mi ...
), cheeses (particularly soft-ripened cheeses such as feta, Brie, Camembert, blue-veined, or Mexican-style ''queso blanco''), raw and cooked poultry, raw meats, ice cream, raw fruit, vegetables, and smoked fish. Cold-cut meats were implicated in an outbreak in Canada in 2008; improperly handled cantaloupe was implicated in both the outbreak of listeriosis from Jensen Farms in Colorado in 2011, and a similar listeriosis outbreak across eastern Australia in early 2018. 35 people died across these two outbreaks. The Australian company GMI Food Wholesalers was fined A$236,000 for providing ''L. monocytogenes''-contaminated chicken wraps to the airline Virgin Blue in 2011. Caramel apples have also been cited as a source of listerial infections which hospitalized 26 people, of whom five died. In 2019, the United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
experienced nine cases of the disease, of which six were fatal, in an outbreak caused by contaminated meat (produced by North Country Cooked Meats) in hospital sandwiches. In 2019, two people in Australia died after probably eating smoked salmon and a third fell ill but survived the disease. In September 2019, three deaths and a miscarriage were reported in the Netherlands after the consumption of listeria-infected deli meats produced by Offerman.
Prevention
Preventing listeriosis as a foodborne illness
Foodborne illness (also foodborne disease and food poisoning) is any illness resulting from the spoilage of contaminated food by pathogenic bacteria, viruses, or parasites that contaminate food,
as well as prions (the agents of mad cow disease) ...
requires effective sanitation of food contact surfaces. Ethanol
Ethanol (abbr. EtOH; also called ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, drinking alcohol, or simply alcohol) is an organic compound. It is an Alcohol (chemistry), alcohol with the chemical formula . Its formula can be also written as or (an ethyl ...
is an effective topical sanitizer against ''Listeria''. Quaternary ammonium
In chemistry, quaternary ammonium cations, also known as quats, are positively charged polyatomic ions of the structure , R being an alkyl group or an aryl group. Unlike the ammonium ion () and the primary, secondary, or tertiary ammonium cations ...
can be used in conjunction with alcohol as a food-contact safe sanitizer with increased duration of the sanitizing action.
Keeping foods in the home refrigerated below 4 °C (39 °F) discourages bacterial growth. Unpasteurized dairy products may pose a risk. Cooking all meats (including beef, pork, poultry, and seafood) to a safe internal temperature, typically 73 °C (165 °F), will kill the food-borne pathogen.
Treatment
''Non-invasive listeriosis'': bacteria are retained within the digestive tract. Symptoms are mild, lasting only a few days and requiring only supportive care. Muscle pain and fever can be treated with over-the-counter pain relievers; diarrhea and gastroenteritis can be treated with over-the-counter medications.
''Invasive listeriosis'': bacteria have spread to the bloodstream and central nervous system. Treatment includes intravenous delivery of high-dose antibiotics
An antibiotic is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections, and antibiotic medications are widely used in the treatment and prevention o ...
and hospital in-patient care of (probably) not less than two weeks stay, depending on the extent of the infection. Ampicillin
Ampicillin is an antibiotic used to prevent and treat a number of bacterial infections, such as respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, meningitis, salmonellosis, and endocarditis. It may also be used to prevent group B strepto ...
, penicillin
Penicillins (P, PCN or PEN) are a group of β-lactam antibiotics originally obtained from ''Penicillium'' moulds, principally '' P. chrysogenum'' and '' P. rubens''. Most penicillins in clinical use are synthesised by P. chrysogenum using ...
, or amoxicillin
Amoxicillin is an antibiotic medication used to treat a number of bacterial infections. These include middle ear infection, strep throat, pneumonia, skin infections, and urinary tract infections among others. It is taken by mouth, or less c ...
are typically administered for invasive listeriosis; gentamicin
Gentamicin is an antibiotic used to treat several types of bacterial infections. This may include bone infections, endocarditis, pelvic inflammatory disease, meningitis, pneumonia, urinary tract infections, and sepsis among others. It is not e ...
may be added in cases of patients with compromised immune systems. In cases of allergy to penicillin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole
Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, sold under the brand name Bactrim among others, is a fixed-dose combination antibiotic medication used to treat a variety of bacterial infections. It consists of one part trimethoprim to five parts sulfamethoxaz ...
, vancomycin
Vancomycin is a glycopeptide antibiotic medication used to treat a number of bacterial infections. It is recommended intravenously as a treatment for complicated skin infections, bloodstream infections, endocarditis, bone and joint infections, ...
, and fluoroquinolones
A quinolone antibiotic is a member of a large group of broad-spectrum antibiotic, broad-spectrum bacteriocidals that share a bicyclic molecule, bicyclic core structure related to the substance 4-Quinolone, 4-quinolone. They are used in human and ...
may be used. For effective treatment the antibiotic must penetrate the host cell and bind to penicillin-binding protein 3 (PBP3). Cephalosporins
The cephalosporins (sg. ) are a class of β-lactam antibiotics originally derived from the fungus ''Acremonium'', which was previously known as ''Cephalosporium''.
Together with cephamycins, they constitute a subgroup of β-lactam antibiotics ...
are not effective for treating listeriosis.
In cases of pregnancy, prompt treatment is critical to prevent bacteria from infecting the fetus
A fetus or foetus (; plural fetuses, feti, foetuses, or foeti) is the unborn offspring that develops from an animal embryo. Following embryonic development the fetal stage of development takes place. In human prenatal development, fetal deve ...
; antibiotics may be given to pregnant women even in non-invasive listeriosis. Mirena Nikolova, ''et al.'', states that applying antibiotics is crucial during the third trimester because cell-mediated immunity is reduced during this time. Pfaff and Tillet say that listeriosis can cause long-term consequences—including meningitis, preterm labor, newborn sepsis, stillbirths—when contracted during pregnancy. Oral therapies in less severe cases may include amoxicillin or erythromycin
Erythromycin is an antibiotic used for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections. This includes respiratory tract infections, skin infections, chlamydia infections, pelvic inflammatory disease, and syphilis. It may also be used duri ...
. Higher doses may be given to pregnant women to ensure penetration of the umbilical cord
In placental mammals, the umbilical cord (also called the navel string, birth cord or ''funiculus umbilicalis'') is a conduit between the developing embryo or fetus and the placenta. During prenatal development, the umbilical cord is physiologi ...
and placenta
The placenta is a temporary embryonic and later fetal organ that begins developing from the blastocyst shortly after implantation. It plays critical roles in facilitating nutrient, gas and waste exchange between the physically separate mater ...
. Infected pregnant women may receive ultrasound scan
Medical ultrasound includes diagnostic techniques (mainly imaging techniques) using ultrasound, as well as therapeutic applications of ultrasound. In diagnosis, it is used to create an image of internal body structures such as tendons, muscle ...
s to monitor the health of the fetus.
Asymptomatic
In medicine, any disease is classified asymptomatic if a patient tests as carrier for a disease or infection but experiences no symptoms. Whenever a medical condition fails to show noticeable symptoms after a diagnosis it might be considered asy ...
patients who have been exposed to ''Listeria'' typically are not treated, but are informed of the signs and symptoms of the disease and advised to return for treatment if any develop.
Research
Some ''Listeria'' species are opportunistic pathogens: ''L. monocytogenes'' is most prevalent in the elderly, pregnant mothers, and patients infected with HIV. With improved healthcare leading to a growing elderly population and extended life expectancies for HIV infected patients, physicians are more likely to encounter this otherwise-rare infection (only seven per 1,000,000 healthy people are infected with virulent ''Listeria'' each year).[ Better understanding the cell biology of ''Listeria'' infections, including relevant virulence factors, may lead to better treatments for listeriosis and other intracytoplasmic parasite infections. Researchers are now investigating the use of ''Listeria'' as a cancer vaccine, taking advantage of its "ability to induce potent innate and adaptive immunity."]
See also
* 2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak
The 2008 Canadian listeriosis outbreak was a widespread outbreak of listeriosis in Canada linked to cold cuts from a Maple Leaf Foods plant in Toronto, Ontario. There were 57 total confirmed cases, resulting in 23 deaths.
Origin and spread
Liste ...
* 2011 United States listeriosis outbreak
* 2017–2018 South African listeriosis outbreak
* 2018 Australian rockmelon listeriosis outbreak
The 2018 Australian rockmelon listeriosis outbreak was an outbreak of Listeriosis, caused by the bacteria ''Listeria monocytogenes'', later traced to rockmelon (also known as cantaloupe) grown by Rombola Family Farms in the Riverina region of N ...
* List of foodborne illness outbreaks
This is a list of foodborne illness outbreaks. A foodborne illness may be from an infectious disease, heavy metals, chemical contamination, or from natural toxins, such as those found in poisonous mushrooms.
Deadliest
* List of foodborne illne ...
References
Further reading
*
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*
*
*
* Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 2005
"Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook: The ìBad Bug Book"
''Food and Drug Administration'', College Park, MD. Accessed: 1 March 2006.
*
* Frank, J. F. 2001. "Microbial attachment to food and food contact surfaces". In: ''Advances in Food and Nutrition Research'', Vol. 43. ed. Taylor, S. L. San Diego, CA. Academic Press., Inc. 320–370.
*
*
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*Nikolova, M., Todorova, T. T., Tsankova, G., & Ermenlieva, N. (2016). А possible case of а newborn premature baby with Listeria monocytogenes infection. Scripta Scientifica Medica, 48(2).
*
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* Pfaff, N. F., & Tillett, J. (2016). Listeriosis and Toxoplasmosis in Pregnancy: Essentials for Healthcare Providers. The Journal of perinatal & neonatal nursing, 30(2), 131.
*
* Ross, H. (2015). Food Hygiene: Rare Burgers. Eur. Food & Feed L. Rev., 382.
*
*
*
*
* USDA-FSIS. (United States Department of Agriculture – Food Safety and Inspection Service) 2003
''United States Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection Service'', Washington, DC. Accessed: 1 March 2006
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External links
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Listeria
genomes and related data a
PATRIC
funded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID, ) is one of the 27 institutes and centers that make up the National Institutes of Health (NIH), an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). NIAID's ...
''Listeria'' at Bac''Dive'' - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase
{{Authority control
Bacteria genera
Listeriaceae