The list below describes such skeletal movements as normally are possible in particular joints of the human body. Other animals have different degrees of movement at their respective joints; this is because of differences in positions of muscles and because structures peculiar to the bodies of humans and other species block motions unsuited to their anatomies.
Arm and shoulder
Shoulder
elbow
The major muscles involved in retraction include the
rhomboid major muscle,
rhomboid minor muscle
In human anatomy, the rhomboid minor is a small skeletal muscle on the back that connects the scapula with the vertebrae of the spinal column.
Located inferior to levator scapulae and superior to rhomboid major, it acts together with the latte ...
and
trapezius muscle, whereas the major muscles involved in protraction include the
serratus anterior
The serratus anterior is a muscle that originates on the surface of the 1st to 8th ribs at the side of the chest and inserts along the entire anterior length of the medial border of the scapula. The serratus anterior acts to pull the scapula fo ...
and
pectoralis minor
Pectoralis minor muscle () is a thin, triangular muscle, situated at the upper part of the chest, beneath the pectoralis major in the human body.
Structure
Attachments
Pectoralis minor muscle arises from the upper margins and outer surfaces ...
muscles.
Sternoclavicular and acromioclavicular joints
Elbow
Wrist and fingers
Movements of the fingers
Movements of the thumb
Neck
Spine
Lower limb
Knees
Feet
The muscles
tibialis anterior
The tibialis anterior muscle is a muscle in humans that originates along the upper two-thirds of the lateral (outside) surface of the tibia and inserts into the medial cuneiform and first metatarsal bones of the foot. It acts to dorsiflex and inve ...
and
tibialis posterior
The tibialis posterior muscle is the most central of all the leg muscles, and is located in the deep posterior compartment of the leg. It is the key stabilizing muscle of the lower leg.
Structure
The tibialis posterior muscle originates on the i ...
invert the foot. Some sources also state that the
triceps surae and
extensor hallucis longus invert.
Inversion occurs at the
subtalar joint and
transverse tarsal joint
The transverse tarsal joint or midtarsal joint or Chopart's joint is formed by the articulation of the calcaneus with the cuboid (the calcaneocuboid joint), and the articulation of the talus with the navicular (the talocalcaneonavicular joint). ...
.
Eversion of the foot occurs at the
subtalar joint. The muscles involved in this include
Fibularis longus and
fibularis brevis, which are innervated by the
superficial fibular nerve
The superficial fibular nerve (also known as superficial peroneal nerve) innervates the fibularis longus and fibularis brevis muscles and the skin over the antero-lateral aspect of the leg along with the greater part of the dorsum of the foot (wit ...
. Some sources also state that the
fibularis tertius
In human anatomy, the fibularis tertius (also known as the peroneus tertius) is a muscle in the anterior compartment of the leg. It acts to tilt the sole of the foot away from the midline of the body ( eversion) and to pull the foot upward towar ...
everts.
Gray441.png, Peroneus longus and peroneus brevis
In human anatomy, the fibularis brevis (or peroneus brevis) is a muscle that lies underneath the fibularis longus within the lateral compartment of the leg. It acts to tilt the sole of the foot away from the midline of the body (eversion) and to e ...
(centre left), the primary muscles involved in eversion
Gray442.png, Tibialis anterior and posterior (centre top), the primary muscles involved in inversion
Dorsiflexion of the foot: The muscles involved include those of the
Anterior compartment of leg, specifically
tibialis anterior muscle,
extensor hallucis longus muscle
The extensor hallucis longus muscle is a thin skeletal muscle, situated between the tibialis anterior and the extensor digitorum longus. It extends the big toe and dorsiflects the foot. It also assists with foot eversion and inversion.
Struct ...
,
extensor digitorum longus muscle
The extensor digitorum longus is a pennate muscle, situated at the lateral part of the front of the leg.
Origin and insertion
It arises from the lateral condyle of the tibia; from the upper three-quarters of the anterior surface of the body of t ...
, and
peroneus tertius
In human anatomy, the fibularis tertius (also known as the peroneus tertius) is a muscle in the anterior compartment of the leg. It acts to tilt the sole of the foot away from the midline of the body ( eversion) and to pull the foot upward towar ...
. The range of motion for dorsiflexion indicated in the literature varies from 12.2 to 18 degrees.
Foot drop
Foot drop is a gait abnormality in which the dropping of the forefoot happens due to weakness, irritation or damage to the deep fibular nerve (deep peroneal), including the sciatic nerve, or paralysis of the muscles in the anterior portion of t ...
is a condition, that occurs when dorsiflexion is difficult for an individual who is walking.
Plantarflexion of the foot: Primary muscles for plantar flexion are situated in the
Posterior compartment of leg
The posterior compartment of the leg is one of the fascial compartments of the leg and is divided further into deep and superficial compartments.
Structure Muscles Superficial posterior compartment
Deep posterior compartment
Blood ...
, namely the superficial
Gastrocnemius,
Soleus and
Plantaris (only weak participation), and the deep muscles
Flexor hallucis longus
The flexor hallucis longus muscle (FHL) is one of the three deep muscles of the posterior compartment of the leg that attaches to the plantar surface of the distal phalanx of the great toe. The other deep muscles are the flexor digitorum longus an ...
,
Flexor digitorum longus and
Tibialis posterior
The tibialis posterior muscle is the most central of all the leg muscles, and is located in the deep posterior compartment of the leg. It is the key stabilizing muscle of the lower leg.
Structure
The tibialis posterior muscle originates on the i ...
. Muscles in the
Lateral compartment of leg also weakly participate, namely the
Fibularis longus and
Fibularis brevis muscles. Those in the lateral compartment only have weak participation in plantar flexion though. The range of motion for plantar flexion is usually indicated in the literature as 30° to 40°, but sometimes also 50°. The nerves are primarily from the
sacral
Sacral may refer to:
*Sacred, associated with divinity and considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion
*Of the sacrum
The sacrum (plural: ''sacra'' or ''sacrums''), in human anatomy, is a large, triangular bone at the base of the spi ...
spinal cord roots S1 and S2. Compression of S1 roots may result in weakness in plantarflexion; these nerves run from the lower back to the bottom of the foot.
''
Pronation
Motion, the process of movement, is described using specific anatomical terms. Motion includes movement of organs, joints, limbs, and specific sections of the body. The terminology used describes this motion according to its direction relative ...
'' at the
forearm
The forearm is the region of the upper limb between the elbow and the wrist. The term forearm is used in anatomy to distinguish it from the arm, a word which is most often used to describe the entire appendage of the upper limb, but which in anat ...
is a rotational movement at the
radioulnar joint, or of the
foot
The foot ( : feet) is an anatomical structure found in many vertebrates. It is the terminal portion of a limb which bears weight and allows locomotion. In many animals with feet, the foot is a separate organ at the terminal part of the leg made ...
at the
subtalar and
talocalcaneonavicular joints.
For the forearm, when standing in the
anatomical position
The standard anatomical position, or standard anatomical model, is the scientifically agreed upon reference position for anatomical location terms. Standard anatomical positions are used to standardise the position of appendages of animals with r ...
, pronation will move the palm of the hand from an anterior-facing position to a posterior-facing position without an associated movement at the
shoulder joint). This corresponds to a
counterclockwise
Two-dimensional rotation can occur in two possible directions. Clockwise motion (abbreviated CW) proceeds in the same direction as a clock's hands: from the top to the right, then down and then to the left, and back up to the top. The opposite ...
twist for the right forearm and a
clockwise
Two-dimensional rotation can occur in two possible directions. Clockwise motion (abbreviated CW) proceeds in the same direction as a clock's hands: from the top to the right, then down and then to the left, and back up to the top. The opposite ...
twist for the left (when viewed superiorly). In the forearm, this action is performed by
pronator quadratus
Pronator quadratus is a square-shaped muscle on the distal forearm that acts to pronate (turn so the palm faces downwards) the hand.
Structure
Its fibres run perpendicular to the direction of the arm, running from the most distal quarter of the ...
and
pronator teres muscle.
Brachioradialis
The brachioradialis is a muscle of the forearm that flexes the forearm at the elbow. It is also capable of both pronation and supination, depending on the position of the forearm. It is attached to the distal styloid process of the radius by way o ...
puts the forearm into a midpronated/supinated position from either full pronation or supination. For the foot, pronation will cause the sole of the foot to face more laterally than when standing in the anatomical position.
Pronation of the foot is a compound movement that combines
abduction,
eversion
Eversion (from the verb "evert") is the process of turning inside-out. Eversion may refer to:
* Eversion (kinesiology), the anatomical term of motion denoting the movement of the sole of the foot away from the median plane
* ''Eversion'' (video g ...
, and
dorsiflexion. Regarding posture, a pronated foot is one in which the heel bone angles inward and the arch tends to collapse. Pronation is the motion of the inner and outer ball of the foot with the heel bone.
One is said to be "
knock-kneed" if one has overly pronated feet. It flattens the arch as the foot strikes the ground in order to absorb shock when the heel hits the ground, and to assist in balance during mid-stance. If habits develop, this action can lead to foot pain as well as knee pain,
shin splints,
achilles tendinitis
Achilles tendinitis, also known as achilles tendinopathy, occurs when the Achilles tendon, found at the back of the ankle, becomes sore. Achilles tendinopathy is accompanied by alterations in the tendon's structure and mechanical properties. The ...
, posterior tibial tendinitis,
piriformis syndrome, and
plantar fasciitis..
References
{{reflist
Human physiology
Movements