''Linaria purpurea'' or purple toadflax is a purple-flowered plant native to Italy, part of the plantain family (

Plantaginaceae Plantaginaceae, the plantain family, is a large, diverse family of flowering plants in the order Lamiales that includes common flowers such as snapdragon and foxglove. It is unrelated to the banana-like fruit also called "plantain." In older cl ...

). It is sometimes planted in gardens and is also an introduced weed in North America and other parts of Europe.

Description

It is a

perennial A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives more than two years. The term ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also wide ...

herbaceous Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground. This broad category of plants includes many perennials, and nearly all annuals and biennials. Definitions of "herb" and "herbaceous" The fourth edition of t ...

plant growing 30 to 70 centimeters tall with linear leaves 2 to 5 centimeters in length. The

inflorescence An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed o ...

is a

raceme A raceme ( or ) or racemoid is an unbranched, indeterminate type of inflorescence bearing flowers having short floral stalks along the shoots that bear the flowers. The oldest flowers grow close to the base and new flowers are produced as the s ...

of flowers occupying the top of the stem. The flower is between 1 and 2 centimeters long with five lobes arranged into two lips with a spur at the end. The flower is usually light to medium purple in color. The fruit is a capsule. There is a pale pink cultivar of the species named 'Canon Went'.

Range

It is native to

Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...

, but it can be found growing wild as an

introduced species An introduced species, alien species, exotic species, adventive species, immigrant species, foreign species, non-indigenous species, or non-native species is a species living outside its native distributional range, but which has arrived there ...

in parts of western North America, including

California California is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States, located along the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the List of states and territori ...

, western

Washington Washington commonly refers to: * Washington (state), United States * Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States ** A metonym for the federal government of the United States ** Washington metropolitan area, the metropolitan area centered o ...

, and

British Columbia British Columbia (commonly abbreviated as BC) is the westernmost province of Canada, situated between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. It has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that include rocky coastlines, sandy beaches, ...

, and it is cultivated as an

ornamental plant Ornamental plants or garden plants are plants that are primarily grown for their beauty but also for qualities such as scent or how they shape physical space. Many flowering plants and garden varieties tend to be specially bred cultivars that i ...

. It occurs naturally in moist, moderately nutrient-rich places. In the UK it is regarded as something of a weed, spreading readily on stony waste ground and walls, although it is tolerated for its attractive, long-lasting flowers which are very attractive to bees.

Toxicity and chemistry

This plant is poisonous to livestock, though ruminants may tend to avoid consuming it. The larvae of some species of

Lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) is an order (biology), order of insects that includes butterfly, butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 Family (biology), families and 46 Taxonomic r ...

(butterflies) use this plant as a food source. In a recent study conducted in Italy the plant was found to contain a compound exhibiting

antifungal An antifungal medication, also known as an antimycotic medication, is a pharmaceutical fungicide or fungistatic used to treat and prevent mycosis such as athlete's foot, ringworm, candidiasis (thrush), serious systemic infections such as crypto ...

activity, which drastically reduced the production of

aflatoxin B1 Aflatoxin B1 is an aflatoxin produced by ''Aspergillus flavus'' and '' A. parasiticus''. It is a very potent carcinogen with a TD50 3.2 μg/kg/day in rats. This carcinogenic potency varies across species with some, such as rats and monkeys, seem ...

in ''

Aspergillus flavus ''Aspergillus flavus'' is a saprotrophic and pathogenic fungus with a cosmopolitan distribution. It is best known for its colonization of cereal grains, legumes, and tree nuts. Postharvest rot typically develops during harvest, storage, and/or t ...

'' Link., making it a potential natural and 'green' anti-aflatoxin B1 agent suitable for use in the

food industry The food industry is a complex, global network of diverse businesses that supplies most of the food consumed by the world's population. The food industry today has become highly diversified, with manufacturing ranging from small, traditiona ...

.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334596739_Phytochemical_analysis_of_Linaria_purpurea_L_Mill_and_inhibitory_activity_on_the_production_of_aflatoxin_B1_AFB1_in_Aspergillus_flavus_Link_of_one_of_its_metabolites_antirrhinoside Abstract: Frezza, C., Venditti, A., Marcucci, E. and Parroni, A. ''Industrial Crops and Products'' Vol. 139, 1 November 2019 "Phytochemical analysis of Linaria purpurea (L.) Mill. and inhibitory activity on the production of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in Aspergillus flavus Link. of one of its metabolites, antirrhinoside"

References

External links

{{Taxonbar, from=Q6550284 purpurea Flora of Italy Taxa named by Philip Miller