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The ''Liezi'' () is a
Taoist
Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the '' Tao ...
text attributed to
Lie Yukou
Lie Yukou (; ) is considered the author of the Daoist book '' Liezi'', which uses his honorific name Liezi ().
Name
The second Chinese character in Yukou is written ''kou'' "bandit; enemy"; the first is written ''yu'' "imprison", ''yu'' " ...
, a c. 5th century BC
Hundred Schools of Thought
The Hundred Schools of Thought () were philosophies and schools that flourished from the 6th century BC to 221 BC during the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period of ancient China.
An era of substantial discrimination in China ...
philosopher. Although there were references to Lie's ''Liezi'' from the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, a number of Chinese and Western scholars believe that the content of the current text was compiled around the 4th century CE by Zhang Zhan.
Textual history
The first two references to the ''Liezi'' book are from the Former
Han Dynasty
The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...
. The editor
Liu Xiang notes he eliminated repetitions in ''Liezi'' and rearranged it into eight chapters (''pian'' ). The
Book of Han
The ''Book of Han'' or ''History of the Former Han'' (Qián Hàn Shū,《前汉书》) is a history of China finished in 111AD, covering the Western, or Former Han dynasty from the first emperor in 206 BCE to the fall of Wang Mang in 23 CE. ...
bibliography section () says it has eight chapters () and concludes that since the ''
Zhuangzi Zhuangzi may refer to:
* ''Zhuangzi'' (book) (莊子), an ancient Chinese collection of anecdotes and fables, one of the foundational texts of Daoism
**Zhuang Zhou
Zhuang Zhou (), commonly known as Zhuangzi (; ; literally "Master Zhuang"; als ...
'' quotes Liezi, he must have lived before
Zhuangzi Zhuangzi may refer to:
* ''Zhuangzi'' (book) (莊子), an ancient Chinese collection of anecdotes and fables, one of the foundational texts of Daoism
**Zhuang Zhou
Zhuang Zhou (), commonly known as Zhuangzi (; ; literally "Master Zhuang"; als ...
. There is a three-century historical gap until the next evidence of the ''Liezi'': the
Jin dynasty commentary by Zhang Zhan (fl. ca. 370 CE). Zhang's preface claims his ''Liezi'' copy was transmitted down from his grandfather. All received ''Liezi'' texts derive from Zhang's version, which is divided into eight chapters (''juan'' ).
During the reign of
Emperor Xuanzong of Tang, the ''Liezi'' was designated a Daoist classic, completing the trilogy with the more famous ''
Tao Te Ching
The ''Tao Te Ching'' (, ; ) is a Chinese classic text written around 400 BC and traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated. The oldest excavated portion d ...
'' and ''Zhuangzi'', it was honorifically entitled the ''Chongxu zhenjing'' (; "True Classic of Simplicity and Vacuity", that is, ''Classic of the Perfect Emptiness''). This "Simplicity and Vacuity" is
Wing-tsit Chan
Wing-tsit Chan (; 18 August 1901 – 12 August 1994) was a Chinese scholar and professor best known for his studies of Chinese philosophy and his translations of Chinese philosophical texts. Chan was born in China in 1901 and went to the United St ...
's translation; ''chongxu'' (literally "soar/young/simple empty/skies/modest") usually means "soar aloft, rise high; carefree, unburdened with ambition". During the later reign of
Emperor Zhenzong of Song, the ''Liezi'' was further honored as the ''Chongxu zhide zhenjing'' (; “True Classic of Simplicity and Vacuity and Perfect Virtue”).
Contents
The eight ''Liezi'' chapters are shown below (with translations of titles adapted from Graham 1960).
Most ''Liezi'' chapters are named after famous figures in
Chinese mythology
Chinese mythology () is mythology that has been passed down in oral form or recorded in literature in the geographic area now known as Greater China. Chinese mythology includes many varied myths from regional and cultural traditions.
Much of t ...
and history. Either sage rulers like the
Yellow Emperor
The Yellow Emperor, also known as the Yellow Thearch or by his Chinese name Huangdi (), is a deity ('' shen'') in Chinese religion, one of the legendary Chinese sovereigns and culture heroes included among the mytho-historical Three Soverei ...
(supposedly r. 2698?–2599? BCE),
King Tang of Shang
Cheng Tang (), personal name Zi Lü (), recorded on oracle bones as Da Yi (大乙), was the first king of the Shang dynasty in Chinese history. Traditionally considered a virtuous ruler, he overthrew Jie, the last ruler of the Xia dynasty.
Rise ...
(r. 1617?–1588? BCE), and
King Mu of Zhou (r. 1023?–983? BCE); or philosophers like
Confucius
Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...
(551–479 BCE) and
Yang Zhu
Yang Zhu (; ; 440–c.360 BC), also known as Yang Zi or Yangzi (Master Yang), was a Chinese philosopher during the Warring States period. An early ethical egoist alternative to Mohist and Confucian thought, Yang Zhu's surviving ideas appear prima ...
(fl. ca. 350 BCE).
The ''Liezi'' is generally considered to be the most practical of the major Taoist works, compared to the poetic narrative of Laozi and the philosophical writings of Zhuangzi. Although the ''Liezi'' has not been extensively published in the West, some passages are well known. For example, Gengsangzi (; cf. ''Zhuangzi'' chap. 23) gives this description of Taoist pure experience:
My body is in accord with my mind, my mind with my energies, my energies with my spirit, my spirit with Nothing. Whenever the minutest existing thing or the faintest sound affects me, whether it is far away beyond the eight borderlands, or close at hand between my eyebrows and eyelashes, I am bound to know it. However, I do not know whether I perceived it with the seven holes in my head and my four limbs, or knew it through my heart and belly and internal organs. It is simply self-knowledge. (chap. 4, tr. Graham 1990:77–78)
Compare the ''Zhuangzi'' saying, "The Perfect Man uses his mind like a mirror — going after nothing, welcoming nothing, responding but not storing. Therefore he can win out over things and not hurt himself."
Authenticity
''Liezi'' scholars have long recognized that it shares many passages with other pre-Han texts like the ''Zhuangzi'', ''Daodejing'', and ''
Lüshi Chunqiu
The ''Lüshi Chunqiu'', also known in English as ''Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals'', is an encyclopedic Chinese classic text compiled around 239 BC under the patronage of the Qin Dynasty Chancellor Lü Buwei. In the evaluation of Micha ...
''. Barrett (1993:298) says opinion is "divided as to whether it is an ancient work with later interpolations or a forgery confected from ancient sources." On the one hand, the ''Liezi'' could contain a core of c. 400 BCE authentic writings of Lie Yukou; on the other hand, it could be a c. 400 CE compilation forged by Zhang Zhan.
The ''Liezi'' is most similar with the ''
Zhuangzi Zhuangzi may refer to:
* ''Zhuangzi'' (book) (莊子), an ancient Chinese collection of anecdotes and fables, one of the foundational texts of Daoism
**Zhuang Zhou
Zhuang Zhou (), commonly known as Zhuangzi (; ; literally "Master Zhuang"; als ...
''. They share many characters and stories; Graham (1990:12) lists sixteen complete episodes plus sections from others. The ''Zhuangzi'' also mentions Liezi in four chapters and Lie Yukou in three, for example, the famous passage about Liezi's ability to ride the wind and go flying around in chapter 1
see Watson.
The final two chapters have heterogeneous contents that differ from the Daoism elsewhere in the book. Chapter 7 records the
Hedonist
Hedonism refers to a family of theories, all of which have in common that pleasure plays a central role in them. ''Psychological'' or ''motivational hedonism'' claims that human behavior is determined by desires to increase pleasure and to decre ...
philosophy of "Yang Zhu" (Yangzi), infamous for the criticism of
Mencius that he, "believed in 'every man for himself.' If he could have helped the whole world by plucking out a single hair, he would not have done it." (chap. 7A, tr
Muller Zhang Zhan speculates that this chapter, focusing on indulgence in physical and temporary pleasures, was from Lie Yukou's earlier years as a hedonist, before he became a Daoist. The well-known scholar of Chinese philosophy,
Wing-Tsit Chan
Wing-tsit Chan (; 18 August 1901 – 12 August 1994) was a Chinese scholar and professor best known for his studies of Chinese philosophy and his translations of Chinese philosophical texts. Chan was born in China in 1901 and went to the United St ...
(1963:309) calls the "Yang Zhu" chapter "negative Daoism" in contrast with the Daoism of Laozi, Zhuangzi, and Huainanzi that were "all positive in that each represents something new." Chapter 8, "Explaining Conjunctions," is primarily taken from other early sources, not only Daoist but
Confucian
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or ...
and
Mohist
Mohism or Moism (, ) was an ancient Chinese philosophy of ethics and logic, rational thought, and science developed by the academic scholars who studied under the ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi (c. 470 BC – c. 391 BC), embodied in an eponym ...
texts, two philosophies that opposed the philosophical Daoism this book expounds.
A. C. Graham, Professor Emeritus of the
School of Oriental and African Studies
SOAS University of London (; the School of Oriental and African Studies) is a public research university in London, England, and a member institution of the federal University of London. Founded in 1916, SOAS is located in the Bloomsbury a ...
, illuminated the textual provenance. After translating ''Liezi'' (1960), which Barrett (1993:307) calls undoubtedly "the best translation into a Western language to date", Graham (1961) linguistically analyzed internal evidence and textual parallels. He discovered many cases where the ''Liezi'' is clearly secondary to other texts, but none where it is the primary source for a passage. The Preface to the revised ''Liezi'' translation (1990:xi-xv) explains his significant change in attitude.
Although in 1960 most scholars in China already recognized the late date of '' iezi', most Westerners were still disinclined to question its antiquity. My own textual studies, not yet completed when this translation first appeared, supported the Chinese dating, which by now prevails also in the West. … One result of the textual investigation came as a surprise to me. The present book describes the hedonist 'Yang hu chapter as 'so unlike the rest of 'Liezi''that it must be from another hand … The thought is certainly very different, and it does show the signs of editing and interpolation by the Taoist author … But although close scrutiny generally reveals marked differences in style between the body of the book and passages borrowed from earlier sources, I could find none to distinguish the hedonist chapter from the rest. (1990:xiii)
Owing to occasional ''Liezi'' textual misunderstandings in Zhang Zhan's commentary, Graham concludes that the "guiding hand" probably belonged to Zhang's father or grandfather, which would mean c. 300 CE.
Suggestions of Buddhist influences in ''Liezi'' chapters 3 and 6 are potentially corroborating evidence for a late date of composition; see
Buddhism in China. "King Mu of Zhou" discusses sense perceptions as illusions; "Endeavor and Destiny" takes a fatalistic (if not karmic) view of destiny, which goes against the traditional Daoist concept of
''Wuwei''.
Influence
''Liezi'' is known as one of the three most important texts in Taoism, together with the ''
Tao Te Ching
The ''Tao Te Ching'' (, ; ) is a Chinese classic text written around 400 BC and traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated. The oldest excavated portion d ...
'' and ''
Zhuangzi''. Outside of Taoism, the
biji genre story ''
Yi Jian Zhi'' by
Hong Mai Hong Mai (, 1123 Poyang County, Poyang-1202 Hangzhou), courtesy name Jinglu (), art name Yechu () and Rongzhai (), was a Chinese statesman, Confucianism, Confucian scholar and writer during the Southern Song dynasty.
He was the author of ''Yijianzh ...
borrowed the character of Yi Jian, a contemporary of the ancient mythical emperor Yu, from ''Liezi''.
Translations
There are fewer English translations of the ''Liezi'' than other Taoist texts. The first were partial versions;
Lionel Giles
Lionel Giles (29 December 1875 – 22 January 1958) was a British sinologist, writer, and philosopher. Lionel Giles served as assistant curator at the British Museum and Keeper of the Department of Oriental Manuscripts and Printed Books. He is ...
(1912) translated chapters 1–6 and 8, while Anton Forke (1912) covered chapter 7 ("Yang Zhu"). As mentioned above, A. C. Graham (1960, 1990) wrote a definitive scholarly translation. A recent ''Liezi'' rendition is a creative translation by Eva Wong (2001). In 2005, the Library of Chinese Classics published a translation by Liang Xiaopeng.
See also
*
Daodejing
The ''Tao Te Ching'' (, ; ) is a Chinese classic text written around 400 BC and traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated. The oldest excavated portion d ...
*
Zhuangzi Zhuangzi may refer to:
* ''Zhuangzi'' (book) (莊子), an ancient Chinese collection of anecdotes and fables, one of the foundational texts of Daoism
**Zhuang Zhou
Zhuang Zhou (), commonly known as Zhuangzi (; ; literally "Master Zhuang"; als ...
*
Wenzi
The ''Wenzi'' () is a Taoist classic allegedly written by a disciple of Laozi. The text was widely read and highly revered in the centuries following its creation, and even canonized as ''Tongxuan zhenjing'' () in the year 742 CE. However, soon aft ...
*
Four Books
The Four Books and Five Classics () are the authoritative books of Confucianism, written in China before 300 BCE. The Four Books and the Five Classics are the most important classics of Chinese Confucianism.
Four Books
The Four Books () are C ...
Notes
References
*Barrett, T.H. "Lieh tzu ". In Michael Loewe, ed., ''Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide'', pp. 298–308. Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China. 1993. .
*Chan Wing-Tsit. ''A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy''. Princeton, NH: Princeton University Press. 1963.
*Giles, Lionel, tr. ''Taoist Teachings from the Book of Lieh-Tzŭ''. London: Wisdom of the East. 1912.
*Forke, Anton, tr. ''Yang Chu's Garden of Pleasure''. London: Wisdom of the East. 1912. (chapter 7)
*Graham, A.C. "The Date and Composition of ''Liehtzyy''," ''Asia Major'' 8, pp. 139–198. 1961.
*Graham, A.C., tr. ''The Book of Lieh-tzǔ: A Classic of Tao''. New York: Columbia University Press. 1960, revised 1990.
*Idema, W.L. and Haft, L 1997, ''A Guide to Chinese Literature'', Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan: Ann Arbor.
*Lafitte, J-J, tr. ''Traité du vide parfait''. Paris: Albin Michel. 1997. (in French)
*Wong, Eva, tr. ''Lieh-Tzu: A Taoist Guide to Practical Living''. 2001. Boston: Shambhala.
*Liang Xiaopeng, tr. ''Liezi''. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. 2005 (Library of Chinese Classics) /K-1816
External links
''Liezi'' Taoist Culture & Information Centre
Overview of World Religions
Ancient Landmarks
* Giles' translation availabl
on archive.org Forke's translation, Internet Sacred Text Archive
Liezi Chinese Text Project
The Chinese Text Project (CTP; ) is a digital library project that assembles collections of early Chinese texts. The name of the project in Chinese literally means "The Chinese Philosophical Book Digitization Project", showing its focus on books ...
(in Chinese)
The ''Liezi''from
Project Gutenberg
Project Gutenberg (PG) is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, as well as to "encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks."
It was founded in 1971 by American writer Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital libr ...
(in Chinese)
The ''Liezi Chapter 7, Yang Chu''from Dalriada Books (in English)
Chinese text with English vocabulary
*
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