![The Scapegoat](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/The_Scapegoat.jpg)
Acharei Mot (also Aharei Mot, Aharei Moth, or Acharei Mos) (,
Hebrew
Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
for "after the death") is the 29th
weekly Torah portion
It is a custom among religious Jewish communities for a weekly Torah portion to be read during Jewish prayer services on Monday, Thursday, and Saturday. The full name, ''Parashat HaShavua'' ( he, פָּרָשַׁת הַשָּׁבוּעַ), is po ...
in the annual
Jewish
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
cycle of
Torah reading
Torah reading (; ') is a Judaism, Jewish religion, religious tradition that involves the public reading of a set of passages from a Sefer Torah, Torah scroll. The term often refers to the entire ceremony of removing the scroll (or scrolls) fro ...
. It is the sixth weekly portion (, ''parashah'') in the
Book of Leviticus
The book of Leviticus (, from grc, Λευιτικόν, ; he, וַיִּקְרָא, , "And He called") is the third book of the Torah (the Pentateuch) and of the Old Testament, also known as the Third Book of Moses. Scholars generally agree ...
, containing . It is named after the fifth and sixth Hebrew words of the parashah, its
first distinctive words.
The parashah sets forth the law of the Yom Kippur ritual, centralized
offerings,
blood
Blood is a body fluid in the circulatory system of humans and other vertebrates that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells, and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. Blood in the c ...
, and sexual practices. The parashah is made up of 4,294 Hebrew letters, 1,170 Hebrew words, 80
verses, and 154 lines in a Torah Scroll (, ''
Sefer Torah
A ( he, סֵפֶר תּוֹרָה; "Book of Torah"; plural: ) or Torah scroll is a handwritten copy of the Torah, meaning the five books of Moses (the first books of the Hebrew Bible). The Torah scroll is mainly used in the ritual of Tora ...
'').
Jews
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
generally read it in April or early May. The
lunisolar
A lunisolar calendar is a calendar in many cultures, combining lunar calendars and solar calendars. The date of Lunisolar calendars therefore indicates both the Moon phase and the time of the solar year, that is the position of the Sun in the Ea ...
Hebrew calendar
The Hebrew calendar ( he, הַלּוּחַ הָעִבְרִי, translit=HaLuah HaIvri), also called the Jewish calendar, is a lunisolar calendar used today for Jewish religious observance, and as an official calendar of the state of Israel. I ...
contains up to 55
week
A week is a unit of time equal to seven days. It is the standard time period used for short cycles of days in most parts of the world. The days are often used to indicate common work days and rest days, as well as days of worship. Weeks are ofte ...
s, the exact number varying between 50 in common years and 54 or 55 in leap years. In leap years (for example, 2022, 2024, and 2027), parashah Acharei Mot is read separately on the 29th
Sabbath
In Abrahamic religions, the Sabbath () or Shabbat (from Hebrew ) is a day set aside for rest and worship. According to the Book of Exodus, the Sabbath is a day of rest on the seventh day, commanded by God to be kept as a holy day of rest, as G ...
after
Simchat Torah
Simchat Torah or Simhat Torah (, lit., "Rejoicing with/of the Torah", Ashkenazi: ''Simchas Torah'') is a Jewish holiday that celebrates and marks the conclusion of the annual cycle of public Torah readings, and the beginning of a new cycle. Simch ...
. In common years (for example, 2021, 2023, 2025, 2026, and 2028), parashah Acharei Mot is combined with the next parashah,
Kedoshim
Kedoshim, K'doshim, or Qedoshim ( — Hebrew for "holy ones," the 14th word, and the first distinctive word, in the parashah) is the 30th weekly Torah portion (, ''parashah'') in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the seventh in the Book ...
, to help achieve the needed number of weekly readings.
Traditional Jews also read parts of the parashah as Torah readings for
Yom Kippur
Yom Kippur (; he, יוֹם כִּפּוּר, , , ) is the holiest day in Judaism and Samaritanism. It occurs annually on the 10th of Tishrei, the first month of the Hebrew calendar. Primarily centered on atonement and repentance, the day's ...
. , which addresses the Yom Kippur ritual, is the traditional Torah reading for the Yom Kippur morning (''
Shacharit
''Shacharit'' ( he, שַחֲרִית ''šaḥăriṯ''), or ''Shacharis'' in Ashkenazi Hebrew, is the morning ''tefillah'' (prayer) of Judaism, one of the three daily prayers.
Different traditions identify different primary components of ...
'') service, and is the traditional Torah reading for the Yom Kippur afternoon (''
Minchah
Mincha ( he, מִנחַה, pronounced as ; sometimes spelled ''Minchah'' or ''Minḥa'') is the afternoon prayer service in Judaism.
Etymology
The name ''Mincha'', meaning "present", is derived from the meal offering that accompanied each sacrif ...
'') service. Some
Conservative
Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy that seeks to promote and to preserve traditional institutions, practices, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilization i ...
congregations substitute readings from for the traditional in the Yom Kippur afternoon ''Minchah'' service. And in the standard
Reform
Reform ( lat, reformo) means the improvement or amendment of what is wrong, corrupt, unsatisfactory, etc. The use of the word in this way emerges in the late 18th century and is believed to originate from Christopher Wyvill#The Yorkshire Associati ...
High Holidays
The High Holidays also known as the High Holy Days, or Days of Awe in Judaism, more properly known as the Yamim Noraim ( he, יָמִים נוֹרָאִים, ''Yāmīm Nōrāʾīm''; "Days of Awe")
#strictly, the holidays of Rosh HaShanah ("Jew ...
prayerbook (''
machzor
The ''machzor'' ( he, מחזור, plural ''machzorim'', and , respectively) is the prayer book which is used by Jews on the High Holy Days of Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. Many Jews also make use of specialized ''machzorim'' on the three pilgr ...
''), and are the Torah readings for the morning Yom Kippur service, in lieu of the traditional .
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , ''
aliyot''.
First reading — Leviticus 16:1–17
The first reading begins the ritual of Yom Kippur. After the death of
Aaron
According to Abrahamic religions, Aaron ''′aharon'', ar, هارون, Hārūn, Greek (Septuagint): Ἀαρών; often called Aaron the priest ()., group="note" ( or ; ''’Ahărōn'') was a prophet, a high priest, and the elder brother of ...
's sons,
God
In monotheism, monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator deity, creator, and principal object of Faith#Religious views, faith.Richard Swinburne, Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Ted Honderich, Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Ox ...
told
Moses
Moses hbo, מֹשֶׁה, Mōše; also known as Moshe or Moshe Rabbeinu (Mishnaic Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּינוּ, ); syr, ܡܘܫܐ, Mūše; ar, موسى, Mūsā; grc, Mωϋσῆς, Mōÿsēs () is considered the most important pro ...
to tell Aaron not to come at will into the
Most Holy Place
This article provides an incomplete list and broad overview of significant religious sites and places of spiritual importance throughout the world. Sites are listed alphabetically by religion.
Abrahamic religions
Abrahamic religions are mo ...
(, ''Kodesh Ha-Kodashim''), lest he die, for God appeared in the
cloud
In meteorology, a cloud is an aerosol consisting of a visible mass of miniature liquid droplets, frozen crystals, or other particles suspended in the atmosphere of a planetary body or similar space. Water or various other chemicals may co ...
there. Aaron was to enter only after bathing in
water
Water (chemical formula ) is an inorganic, transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance, which is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms (in which it acts as a ...
, dressing in his sacral
linen
Linen () is a textile made from the fibers of the flax plant.
Linen is very strong, absorbent, and dries faster than cotton. Because of these properties, linen is comfortable to wear in hot weather and is valued for use in garments. It also ...
tunic, breeches, sash, and
turban
A turban (from Persian دولبند, ''dulband''; via Middle French ''turbant'') is a type of headwear based on cloth winding. Featuring many variations, it is worn as customary headwear by people of various cultures. Communities with promine ...
, and bringing a
bull
A bull is an intact (i.e., not castrated) adult male of the species ''Bos taurus'' (cattle). More muscular and aggressive than the females of the same species (i.e., cows), bulls have long been an important symbol in many religions,
includin ...
for a sin offering, two
rams
In engineering, RAMS (reliability, availability, maintainability and safety)goat
The goat or domestic goat (''Capra hircus'') is a domesticated species of goat-antelope typically kept as livestock. It was domesticated from the wild goat (''C. aegagrus'') of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the a ...
s for sin offerings. Aaron was to take the two goats to the entrance of the
Tabernacle
According to the Hebrew Bible, the tabernacle ( he, מִשְׁכַּן, mīškān, residence, dwelling place), also known as the Tent of the Congregation ( he, link=no, אֹהֶל מוֹעֵד, ’ōhel mō‘ēḏ, also Tent of Meeting, etc.), ...
and place lots upon them, one marked for the Lord and the other for
Azazel
In the Bible, the name Azazel (; he, עֲזָאזֵל ''ʿAzāʾzēl''; ar, عزازيل, ʿAzāzīl) appears in association with the scapegoat rite; the name represents a desolate place where a scapegoat bearing the sins of the Jews during Y ...
. Aaron was to offer the goat designated for the Lord as a sin offering, and to send off to the
wilderness
Wilderness or wildlands (usually in the plural), are natural environments on Earth that have not been significantly modified by human activity or any nonurbanized land not under extensive agricultural cultivation. The term has traditionally re ...
the goat designated for Azazel. Aaron was then to offer the bull of sin offering. Aaron was then to take a pan of glowing
coal
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock strata called coal seams. Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Coal is formed when dea ...
s from the
altar
An altar is a table or platform for the presentation of religious offerings, for sacrifices, or for other ritualistic purposes. Altars are found at shrines, temples, churches, and other places of worship. They are used particularly in paga ...
and two handfuls of
incense
Incense is aromatic biotic material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt. The term is used for either the material or the aroma. Incense is used for aesthetic reasons, religious worship, aromatherapy, meditation, and ceremony. It may also be ...
and put the incense on the fire before the Most Holy Place, so that the cloud from the incense would screen the
Ark of the Covenant
The Ark of the Covenant,; Ge'ez: also known as the Ark of the Testimony or the Ark of God, is an alleged artifact believed to be the most sacred relic of the Israelites, which is described as a wooden chest, covered in pure gold, with an e ...
. He was to sprinkle some of the bull's blood and then some of the goat's blood over and in front of the Ark, to purge the Shrine of the uncleanness and transgression of the
Israelite
The Israelites (; , , ) were a group of Semitic-speaking tribes in the ancient Near East who, during the Iron Age, inhabited a part of Canaan.
The earliest recorded evidence of a people by the name of Israel appears in the Merneptah Stele o ...
s.
Second reading — Leviticus 16:18–24
In the second reading (, ''aliyah''), Aaron was then to apply some of the bull's blood and goat's blood to the altar, to cleanse and consecrate it. Aaron was then to lay his hands on the head of the live goat, confess over it the Israelites' sins, putting them on the head of the goat, and then through a designated man send it off to the wilderness to carry their sins to an inaccessible region. Then Aaron was to go into the Tabernacle, take off his linen vestments, bathe in water, put on his vestments, and then offer the burnt offerings.
Third reading — Leviticus 16:25–34
In the third reading (, ''aliyah''), Aaron was to offer the fat of the sin-offering. The person who set the Azazel-goat (sometimes referred to in English as a
scapegoat
In the Bible, a scapegoat is one of a pair of kid goats that is released into the wilderness, taking with it all sins and impurities, while the other is sacrificed. The concept first appears in the Book of Leviticus, in which a goat is designate ...
) free was to wash his clothes and bathe in water. The bull and goat of sin offering were to be taken outside the camp and burned, and he who burned them was to wash his clothes and bathe in water. The text then commands this law for all time: On the tenth day of the seventh month, Jews and aliens who reside with them were to practice self-denial and do no work. On that day, the
High Priest
The term "high priest" usually refers either to an individual who holds the office of ruler-priest, or to one who is the head of a religious caste.
Ancient Egypt
In ancient Egypt, a high priest was the chief priest of any of the many gods rever ...
was to put on the linen vestments, purge the Tabernacle, and make atonement for the Israelites once a year.
Fourth reading — Leviticus 17:1–7
The fourth reading (, ''aliyah'') begins what scholars call the
Holiness Code
The Holiness code is used in biblical criticism to refer to Leviticus chapters 17–26, and sometimes passages in other books of the Pentateuch, especially Numbers and Exodus. It is so called due to its highly repeated use of the word ''holy'' ...
. God prohibited Israelites from slaughtering oxen, sheep, or goats meant for sacrifice without bringing them to the Tabernacle as an offering.
Fifth reading — Leviticus 17:8–18:5
In the fifth reading (, ''aliyah''), God threatened
excision (, ''karet'') for Israelites who slaughtered oxen, sheep, or goats meant for sacrifice without bringing them to the Tabernacle as an offering. God prohibited consuming blood. One who hunted an animal for food was to pour out its blood and cover it with earth.
[.] Anyone who ate what had died or had been torn by beasts was to wash his clothes, bathe in water, and remain unclean until evening. God told the Israelites not to follow the practices of the
Egyptians
Egyptians ( arz, المَصرِيُون, translit=al-Maṣriyyūn, ; arz, المَصرِيِين, translit=al-Maṣriyyīn, ; cop, ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, remenkhēmi) are an ethnic group native to the Nile, Nile Valley in Egypt. Egyptian ...
or the Canaanites, but to follow God's laws.
Sixth reading — Leviticus 18:6–21
In the sixth reading (, ''aliyah''), God prohibited any Israelite from uncovering the nakedness of his
father
A father is the male parent of a child. Besides the paternal bonds of a father to his children, the father may have a parental, legal, and social relationship with the child that carries with it certain rights and obligations. An adoptive fathe ...
,
mother
]
A mother is the female parent of a child. A woman may be considered a mother by virtue of having given childbirth, birth, by raising a child who may or may not be her biological offspring, or by supplying her ovum for fertilisation in the cas ...
, father's
Marriage, wife,
sister
A sister is a woman or a girl who shares one or more parents with another individual; a female sibling. The male counterpart is a brother. Although the term typically refers to a familial relationship, it is sometimes used endearingly to refer to ...
, grandchild, half-sister, aunt, daughter-in-law, or sister-in-law. A man could not marry a woman and her daughter, a woman and her granddaughter, or a woman and her sister during the other's lifetime. A man could not cohabit with a woman during her period or with his neighbor's wife. Israelites were not to allow their children to be offered up to
Molech
Moloch (; ''Mōleḵ'' or הַמֹּלֶךְ ''hamMōleḵ''; grc, Μόλοχ, la, Moloch; also Molech or Molek) is a name or a term which appears in the Hebrew Bible several times, primarily in the book of Leviticus. The Bible strongly co ...
.
[.]
Seventh reading — Leviticus 18:22–30
In the seventh reading (, ''aliyah''), God prohibited a man from lying with another man as with a woman.
[.] God prohibited bestiality.
[.] God explained that the Canaanites defiled themselves by adopting these practices, and any who did any of these things would be cut off from their people.
In ancient parallels
The parashah has parallels in these ancient sources:
Leviticus chapter 16
Two of the
Ebla tablets
The Ebla tablets are a collection of as many as 1,800 complete clay tablets, 4,700 fragments, and many thousands of minor chips found in the palace archives of the ancient city of Ebla, Syria. The tablets were discovered by Italian archaeologist P ...
written between about 2500 and 2250 BCE in what is now
Syria
Syria ( ar, سُورِيَا or سُورِيَة, translit=Sūriyā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic ( ar, الجمهورية العربية السورية, al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʻArabīyah as-Sūrīyah), is a Western Asian country loc ...
describe rituals to prepare a woman to marry the king of
Ebla
Ebla ( Sumerian: ''eb₂-la'', ar, إبلا, modern: , Tell Mardikh) was one of the earliest kingdoms in Syria. Its remains constitute a tell located about southwest of Aleppo near the village of Mardikh. Ebla was an important center t ...
, one of which parallels those of the scapegoat in . The tablets describe that to prepare for her wedding to the king, the woman hung the necklace of her old life around the neck of a goat and drove it into the hills of Alini, "Where it may stay forever."
In inner-biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:
Leviticus chapter 16
Yom Kippur
refers to the
Festival
A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, or eid. A festival c ...
of Yom Kippur. In the
Hebrew Bible
The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;["Tanach"](_blank)
''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''. Hebrew: ''Tān ...
, Yom Kippur is called:
*the Day of Atonement (, ''Yom HaKippurim'') or a Day of Atonement (, ''Yom Kippurim'');
*a Sabbath of solemn rest (, ''Shabbat Shabbaton''); and
*a holy convocation (, ''mikrah kodesh'').
Much as Yom Kippur, on the 10th of the month of
Tishrei
Tishrei () or Tishri (; he, ''tīšrē'' or ''tīšrī''; from Akkadian ''tašrītu'' "beginning", from ''šurrû'' "to begin") is the first month of the civil year (which starts on 1 Tishrei) and the seventh month of the ecclesiastical year ...
, precedes the Festival of
Sukkot
or ("Booths, Tabernacles")
, observedby = Jews, Samaritans, a few Protestant denominations, Messianic Jews, Semitic Neopagans
, type = Jewish, Samaritan
, begins = 15th day of Tishrei
, ends = 21st day of Tishre ...
, on the 15th of the month of Tishrei, speaks of a period starting on the 10th of the month of
Nisan
Nisan (or Nissan; he, נִיסָן, Standard ''Nīsan'', Tiberian ''Nīsān''; from akk, 𒊬𒊒𒄀 ''Nisanu'') in the Babylonian and Hebrew calendars is the month of the barley ripening and first month of spring. The name of the month is ...
preparatory to the Festival of
Passover
Passover, also called Pesach (; ), is a major Jewish holidays, Jewish holiday that celebrates the The Exodus, Biblical story of the Israelites escape from slavery in Ancient Egypt, Egypt, which occurs on the 15th day of the Hebrew calendar, He ...
, on the 15th of the month of Nisan.
![Kaufmann Day of Atonement](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Kaufmann_Day_of_Atonement.jpg)
and and present similar injunctions to observe Yom Kippur. and and set the Holy Day on the tenth day of the seventh month (Tishrei). and and instruct that "you shall afflict your souls." makes clear that a full day is intended: "you shall afflict your souls; in the ninth day of the month at evening, from evening to evening." And threatens that whoever "shall not be afflicted in that same day, he shall be cut off from his people." and and command that you "shall do no manner of work." Similarly, and call it a "Sabbath of solemn rest." And in , God threatens that whoever "does any manner of work in that same day, that soul will I destroy from among his people." , , and , and describe the purpose of the day to make atonement for the people. Similarly, speaks of the purpose "to cleanse you from all your sins," and speaks of making atonement for the most holy place, the tent of meeting, the altar; and the priests. instructs that the commandment applies both to "the home-born" and to "the stranger who sojourns among you." and and command offerings to God. And and institute the observance as "a statute forever."
sets out detailed procedures for the priest's atonement ritual during the time of the
Temple
A temple (from the Latin ) is a building reserved for spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. Religions which erect temples include Christianity (whose temples are typically called churches), Hinduism (whose temples ...
.
To make atonement (, ''kapar'') is a major theme of , appearing 15 times in the chapter.
16 an
each summarize this purpose of Yom Kippur. Similarly, foreshadows this purpose in the description of the altar, and echoes that purpose in its listing of the Festivals.
In , chance determined which goat was to be offered and which goat was to be sent into the wilderness. teaches that when lots are cast, God determines the result.
instructs that after seven Sabbatical years, on the
Jubilee year
A jubilee is a particular anniversary of an event, usually denoting the 25th, 40th, 50th, 60th, and the 70th anniversary. The term is often now used to denote the celebrations associated with the reign of a monarch after a milestone number of ...
, on the day of atonement, the Israelites were to proclaim liberty throughout the land with the blast of the horn and return every man to his possession and to his family.
In , the
Haftarah
The ''haftara'' or (in Ashkenazic pronunciation) ''haftorah'' (alt. ''haftarah, haphtara'', he, הפטרה) "parting," "taking leave", (plural form: ''haftarot'' or ''haftoros'') is a series of selections from the books of ''Nevi'im'' ("Prop ...
for Yom Kippur morning, God describes "the fast that I have chosen
nthe day for a man to afflict his soul." make clear that "to afflict the soul" was understood as fasting. But goes on to impress that "to afflict the soul," God also seeks acts of social justice: "to loose the fetters of wickedness, to undo the bands of the yoke," "to let the oppressed go free," "to give your bread to the hungry, and . . . bring the poor that are cast out to your house," and "when you see the naked, that you cover him."
Leviticus chapter 17
, like , addresses the centralization of sacrifices and the permissibility of eating meat. While prohibited killing an ox, lamb, or goat (each a sacrificial animal) without bringing it to the door of the Tabernacle as an offering to God, allows killing and eating meat in any place.
While announced that God would set God’s Face against those who consume blood, in , the 8th century BCE
prophet
In religion, a prophet or prophetess is an individual who is regarded as being in contact with a divine being and is said to speak on behalf of that being, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings from the s ...
Amos
Amos or AMOS may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
* Amos Records, an independent record label established in Los Angeles, California, in 1968
* Amos (band), an American Christian rock band
* ''Amos'' (album), an album by Michael Ray
* ''Amos' ...
announced a similar judgment that God would set God’s Eyes for evil upon those who take advantage of the poor.
In early nonrabbinic interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these early nonrabbinic sources:
Leviticus chapter 16
The book of
Jubilees
The Book of Jubilees, sometimes called Lesser Genesis (Leptogenesis), is an ancient Jewish religious work of 50 chapters (1,341 verses), considered canonical by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church as well as Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews), where it is ...
taught that it was ordained that the children of Israel should afflict themselves on the tenth day of the seventh month because that was the day that the news came to Jacob that made him weep for the loss of his son Joseph. His descendants thus made atonement for themselves with a young goat, for Joseph's brothers had slaughtered a kid and dipped the coat of Joseph in the blood, and sent it to Jacob on that day.
Philo
Philo of Alexandria (; grc, Φίλων, Phílōn; he, יְדִידְיָה, Yəḏīḏyāh (Jedediah); ), also called Philo Judaeus, was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt.
Philo's deplo ...
taught that Moses proclaimed the fast of Yom Kippur a feast and named it the greatest of feasts, "a Sabbath of Sabbaths," for many reasons. First is temperance, for when people have learned how to be indifferent to food and drink, they can easily disregard superfluous things. Second is that everyone thereby devotes their entire time to nothing else but prayers and supplications. And third is that the fast occurs at the conclusion of harvest time, to teach people not to rely solely on the food that they have accumulated as the cause of health or life, but on God, Who rules in the world and Who nourished our ancestors in the desert for 40 years.
Leviticus chapter 17
Professor
Isaiah Gafni of
Hebrew University of Jerusalem
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (HUJI; he, הַאוּנִיבֶרְסִיטָה הַעִבְרִית בִּירוּשָׁלַיִם) is a public research university based in Jerusalem, Israel. Co-founded by Albert Einstein and Dr. Chaim Weiz ...
noted that in the
Book of Tobit
The Book of Tobit () ''Tōbith'' or ''Tōbit'' ( and spellings are also attested) itself from he, טובי ''Tovi'' "my good"; Book of Tobias in the Vulgate from the Greek ''Tōbias'', itself from the Hebrew ''Tovyah'' " Yah is good", also k ...
, the protagonist Tobit observed the dietary laws.
Leviticus chapter 18
The
Damascus Document
The Damascus Document is an ancient Hebrew text known from both the Cairo Geniza and the Dead Sea Scrolls.Philip R. Davies, "Damascus Document", in Eric M. Meyers (ed.), ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East'' (Oxford Universit ...
of the
Qumran
Qumran ( he, קומראן; ar, خربة قمران ') is an archaeological site in the West Bank managed by Israel's Qumran National Park. It is located on a dry marl plateau about from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, near the Israeli ...
sectarians prohited a man’s marrying his niece, deducing this from the prohibition in of a woman’s marrying her nephew. Professor
Lawrence Schiffman
Lawrence Harvey Schiffman (born 1948) is a professor at New York University (as of 2014); he was formerly Vice-Provost of Undergraduate Education at Yeshiva University and Professor of Jewish Studies (from early 2011 to 2014). He had previously ...
of
New York University
New York University (NYU) is a private research university in New York City. Chartered in 1831 by the New York State Legislature, NYU was founded by a group of New Yorkers led by then-Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin.
In 1832, the ...
noted that this was a point of contention between the
Pharisees
The Pharisees (; he, פְּרוּשִׁים, Pərūšīm) were a Jewish social movement and a school of thought in the Levant during the time of Second Temple Judaism. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, Pharisaic beliefs bec ...
and other Jewish groups in Second Temple times.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these
rabbi
A rabbi () is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism. One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi – known as ''semikha'' – following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud. The basic form of ...
nic sources from the era of the
Mishnah
The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Torah ...
and the
Talmud
The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law (''halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the cente ...
:
Leviticus chapter 16
Rabbi Levi taught that God gave on the day that the Israelites set up the Tabernacle.
Rabbi Johanan Yohanan, Yochanan and Johanan are various transliterations to the Latin alphabet of the Hebrew male given name ('), a shortened form of ('), meaning "YHWH is gracious".
The name is ancient, recorded as the name of Johanan, high priest of the Se ...
said in the name of
Rabbi Bana'ah
R. Bana'ah [BANNAAH, BANNAY, BANNAYAH](_blank)
jewishencyclopedia.com; Article that the Torah was transmitted in separate scrolls, as
Psalm
The Book of Psalms ( or ; he, תְּהִלִּים, , lit. "praises"), also known as the Psalms, or the Psalter, is the first book of the ("Writings"), the third section of the Tanakh, and a book of the Old Testament. The title is derived ...
says, "Then said I, 'Lo I am come, in the roll of the book it is written of me.'" Rabbi
Simeon ben Lakish
Shim‘on ben Lakish ( he, שמעון בן לקיש; arc, שמעון בר לקיש ''Shim‘on bar Lakish'' or ''bar Lakisha''), better known by his nickname Reish Lakish (c. 200 — c. 275), was an amora who lived in the Roman province of Judae ...
(Resh Lakish), however, said that the Torah was transmitted in its entirety, as , "Take this book of the law." The
Gemara
The Gemara (also transliterated Gemarah, or in Yiddish Gemo(r)re; from Aramaic , from the Semitic root ג-מ-ר ''gamar'', to finish or complete) is the component of the Talmud comprising rabbinical analysis of and commentary on the Mishnah w ...
reported that Rabbi Johanan interpreted , "Take this book of the law," to refer to the time after the Torah had been joined together from its several parts. And the Gemara suggested that Resh Lakish interpreted , "in a roll of the book written of me," to indicate that the whole Torah is called a "roll," as says, "And he said to me, 'What do you see?' And I answered, 'I see a flying roll.'" Or perhaps, the Gemara suggested, it is called "roll" for the reason given by Rabbi Levi, who said that God gave eight sections of the Torah, which Moses then wrote on separate rolls, on the day on which the Tabernacle was set up. They were: the section of the priests in , the section of the Levites in (as the Levites were required for the service of song on that day), the section of the unclean (who would be required to keep the Passover in the second month) in , the section of the sending of the unclean out of the camp (which also had to take place before the Tabernacle was set up) in , the section of (dealing with Yom Kippur, which states was transmitted immediately after the death of Aaron's two sons), the section dealing with the drinking of wine by priests in , the section of the lights of the menorah in , and the section of the red heifer in (which came into force as soon as the Tabernacle was set up).
Rabbi Yannai
Rabbi Yannai (or Rabbi Jannai; he, רבי ינאי) was an '' amora'' who lived in the 3rd century, and of the first generation of the ''Amoraim'' of the Land of Israel.
Biography
A genealogical chart found at Jerusalem traced his descent from E ...
taught that from the very beginning of the world’s creation, God foresaw the deeds of the righteous and the wicked, and provided Yom Kippur in response. Rabbi Yannai taught that , “And the earth was desolate,” alludes to the deeds of the wicked; , “And God said: ‘Let there be light,’” to those of the righteous; , “And God saw the light, that it was good,” to the deeds of the righteous; , “And God made a division between the light and the darkness”: between the deeds of the righteous and those of the wicked; , “And God called the light day,” alludes to the deeds of the righteous; , “And the darkness called He night,” to those of the wicked; , “and there was evening,” to the deeds of the wicked; , “and there was morning,” to those of the righteous. And , “one day,” teaches that God gave the righteous one day — Yom Kippur.
Similarly, Rabbi Judah bar Simon interpreted , “And God called the light day,” to symbolize Jacob/Israel; “and the darkness he called night,” to symbolize Esau; “and there was evening,” to symbolize Esau; “and there was morning,” to symbolize Jacob. And “one day” teaches that God gave Israel one unique day over which darkness has no influence — the Day of Atonement.
Rabbi Hiyya bar Abba taught that Aaron's sons died on the first of Nisan, but mentions their death in connection with the Day of Atonement. Rabbi Hiyya explained that this teaches that as the Day of Atonement effects atonement, so the death of the righteous effects atonement. We know that the Day of Atonement effects atonement from , which says, "For on this day shall atonement be made for you, to cleanse you." And we learn that the death of the righteous effects atonement from
2 Samuel
The Book of Samuel (, ''Sefer Shmuel'') is a book in the Hebrew Bible, found as two books (1–2 Samuel) in the Old Testament. The book is part of the narrative history of Ancient Israel called the Deuteronomistic history, a series of books (Book ...
, which says, "And they buried the bones of
Saul
Saul (; he, , ; , ; ) was, according to the Hebrew Bible, the first monarch of the United Kingdom of Israel. His reign, traditionally placed in the late 11th century BCE, supposedly marked the transition of Israel and Judah from a scattered tri ...
and
Jonathan his son," and then says, "After that God was entreated for the land."
A
Midrash
''Midrash'' (;["midrash"]
''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''. he, מִדְרָשׁ; ...
noted that Scripture records the death of
Nadab and Abihu
In the biblical books Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers, Nadab () and Abihu () were the two oldest sons of Aaron. According to Leviticus 10, they offered a sacrifice with "foreign fire" before the , disobeying his instructions, and were immediate ...
in numerous places ( and ; and ; and
1 Chronicles
The Book of Chronicles ( he, דִּבְרֵי־הַיָּמִים ) is a book in the Hebrew Bible, found as two books (1–2 Chronicles) in the Christian Old Testament. Chronicles is the final book of the Hebrew Bible, concluding the third sect ...
). This teaches that God grieved for Nadab and Abihu, for they were dear to God. And thus quotes God to say: "Through them who are near to Me I will be sanctified."
Reading the words of , "the death of the two sons of Aaron, when they drew near before the Lord, and died,"
Rabbi Jose
Jose ben Halafta or Yose ben Halafta (or Yose ben Halpetha) (Hebrew: רבי יוסי בן חלפתא; IPA: /ʁa'bi 'josi ben xa'lafta/) was a tanna of the fourth generation (2nd century CE). He is the fifth-most-frequently mentioned sage in the M ...
deduced that Aaron's sons died because they drew near to enter the Holy of Holies.
The Rabbis told in a
Baraita
''Baraita'' (Aramaic: "external" or "outside"; pl. ''Barayata'' or ''Baraitot''; also Baraitha, Beraita; Ashkenazi: Beraisa) designates a tradition in the Jewish oral law not incorporated in the Mishnah. ''Baraita'' thus refers to teachings "ou ...
an account in relation to . Once a
Sadducee
The Sadducees (; he, צְדוּקִים, Ṣədūqīm) were a socio-religious sect of Jewish people who were active in Judea during the Second Temple period, from the second century BCE through the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE. The ...
High Priest arranged the incense outside and then brought it inside the Holy of Holies. As he left the Holy, he was very glad. His father met him and told him that although they were Sadducees, they were afraid of the
Pharisees
The Pharisees (; he, פְּרוּשִׁים, Pərūšīm) were a Jewish social movement and a school of thought in the Levant during the time of Second Temple Judaism. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, Pharisaic beliefs bec ...
. He replied that all his life he was aggrieved because of the words of , "For I appear in the cloud upon the Ark-cover." (The Sadducees interpreted as if it said: "Let him not come into the holy place except with the cloud of incense, for only thus, with the cloud, am I to be seen on the Ark-cover.") The Sadducee wondered when the opportunity would come for him to fulfill the verse. He asked how, when such an opportunity came to his hand, he could not have fulfilled it. The Baraita reported that only a few days later he died and was thrown on the dung heap and worms came forth from his nose. Some say he was smitten as he came out of the Holy of Holies. For Rabbi Hiyya taught that a noise was heard in the Temple Court, for an angel struck him down on his face. The priests found a mark like a calf's hoof on his shoulder, evincing, as reports of angels, "And their feet were straight feet, and the sole of their feet was like the sole of a calf's foot."
Tractate
Yoma
Yoma (Aramaic: יומא, lit. "The Day") is the fifth tractate of ''Seder Moed'' ("Order of Festivals") of the ''Mishnah'' and of the ''Talmud''. It is concerned mainly with the laws of the Jewish holiday Yom Kippur, on which Jews atone for their ...
in the Mishnah,
Tosefta
The Tosefta (Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: תוספתא "supplement, addition") is a compilation of the Jewish oral law from the late 2nd century, the period of the Mishnah.
Overview
In many ways, the Tosefta acts as a supplement to the Mishnah ( ...
,
Jerusalem Talmud
The Jerusalem Talmud ( he, תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשַׁלְמִי, translit=Talmud Yerushalmi, often for short), also known as the Palestinian Talmud or Talmud of the Land of Israel, is a collection of rabbinic notes on the second-century ...
, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of Yom Kippur in and and .
Tractate
Beitzah
Beitza ( he, ביצה) or Bei'a (Aramaic: ביעה) (literally "egg", named after the first word) is a tractate in the Order of Moed, dealing with the laws of Yom Tov (holidays). It is Moed's seventh tractate in the Mishna, but the eighth in the ...
in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws common to all of the Festivals in
43–49 ; ; ; ; ; ; ; and ; .
![High Priest Offering Incense on the Altar](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/High_Priest_Offering_Incense_on_the_Altar.jpg)
The Mishnah taught that during the days of the Temple, seven days before Yom Kippur, they would move the High Priest from his house to the cell of the counselors and prepare another priest to take his place in case anything impure happened to him to make him unfit to perform the service.
Rabbi Judah said that they prepared another wife for him, in case his wife should die, as says that "he shall make atonement for himself and for his house" and "his house" means "his wife." But they told Rabbi Judah that if they would do so, then there would be no end to the matter, as they would have to prepare a third wife in case the second died, and so on. The rest of the year, the High Priest would offer sacrifices only if he wanted to, but during the seven days before Yom Kippur, he would sprinkle the blood of the sacrifices, burn the incense, trim the lamps, and offer the head and the hind leg of the sacrifices. They brought sages from the court to the High Priest, and throughout the seven days they read to him about the order of the service. They asked the High Priest to read it aloud, in case he had forgotten or never learned.
[Mishnah Yoma 1:3]
in, e.g., ''The Mishnah: A New Translation'', translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 265–66
Babylonian Talmud Yoma 18a
in, e.g., ''Koren Talmud Bavli: Yoma'', commentary by Adin Even-Israel (Steinsaltz), volume 9, page 75.
The Mishnah taught that on the morning of the day before Yom Kippur, they placed the High Priest at the Eastern Gate and brought before him oxen, rams, and sheep, so that he could become familiar with the service.
[ The rest of the seven days, they did not withhold food or drink from him, but near nightfall on the eve of Yom Kippur, they would not let him eat much, as food might make him sleep. The sages of the court took him up to the house of Avtinas and handed him over to the elders of the priesthood. As the sages of the court took their leave, they cautioned him that he was the messenger of the court, and adjured him in God's Name that he not change anything in the service from what they had told him. He and they turned aside and wept that they should have to suspect him of doing so.
The Mishnah taught that on the night before Yom Kippur, if the High Priest was a sage, he would expound the relevant Scriptures, and if he was not a sage, the disciples of the sages would expound before him. If he was used to reading the Scriptures, he would read, and if he was not, they would read before him. They would read from ]Job
Work or labor (or labour in British English) is intentional activity people perform to support the needs and wants of themselves, others, or a wider community. In the context of economics, work can be viewed as the human activity that contr ...
, Ezra
Ezra (; he, עֶזְרָא, '; fl. 480–440 BCE), also called Ezra the Scribe (, ') and Ezra the Priest in the Book of Ezra, was a Jewish scribe (''sofer'') and priest (''kohen''). In Greco-Latin Ezra is called Esdras ( grc-gre, Ἔσδρας ...
, and Chronicles, and Zechariah ben Kubetal said from Daniel
Daniel is a masculine given name and a surname of Hebrew origin. It means "God is my judge"Hanks, Hardcastle and Hodges, ''Oxford Dictionary of First Names'', Oxford University Press, 2nd edition, , p. 68. (cf. Gabriel—"God is my strength" ...
. If he tried to sleep, young priests would snap their middle finger before him and say, "Mr. High Priest, arise and drive the sleep away!" They would keep him busy until near the time for the morning offering.
On any other day, a priest would remove the ashes from the altar at about the time of the cock's crow (in accordance with ). But for Yom Kippur, the ashes were removed beginning at midnight of the night before. Before the cock's crow approached, Israelites filled the Temple Court. The officer told the priests to see whether the time for the morning sacrifice had arrived. If it had, then the priest who saw it would call out, "It's daylight!"
They led the High Priest down to the place of immersion (the ''mikveh
Mikveh or mikvah (, ''mikva'ot'', ''mikvoth'', ''mikvot'', or (Yiddish) ''mikves'', lit., "a collection") is a bath used for the purpose of ritual immersion in Judaism to achieve ritual purity.
Most forms of ritual impurity can be purif ...
''). During the day of Yom Kippur, the High Priest would immerse himself five times and wash his hands and feet ten times. Except for this first immersion, he would do each on holy ground in the Parwah cell. They spread a linen sheet between him and the people. If the High Priest was either old or delicate, they warmed the water for him. He undressed, immersed himself, came up, and dried off. They brought him the golden garments; he put them on and washed his hands and feet.[Mishnah Yoma 3:4]
in, e.g., ''The Mishnah: A New Translation'', translated by Jacob Neusner, page 268
Babylonian Talmud Yoma 31b
in, e.g., ''Koren Talmud Bavli: Yoma'', commentary by Adin Even-Israel (Steinsaltz), volume 9, page 150.
They brought him the continual offering; he cut its throat, and another priest finished slaughtering it. The High Priest received the blood and sprinkled it on the altar. He entered the Sanctuary, burned the morning incense, and trimmed the lamps. Then he offered up the head, limbs, cakes, and wine-offering.[
They brought him to the Parwah cell, spread a sheet of linen between him and the people, he washed his hands and feet, and undressed. (]Rabbi Meir
Rabbi Meir ( he, רַבִּי מֵאִיר) was a Jewish sage who lived in the time of the Mishnah. He was considered one of the greatest of the Tannaim of the fourth generation (139-163). He is the third most frequently mentioned sage in the Mishn ...
said that he undressed first and then washed his hands and feet.) Then he went down and immersed himself for the second time, came up and dried himself. They brought him white garments (as required by ). He put them on and washed his hands and feet. Rabbi Meir taught that in the morning, he wore Pelusium
Pelusium ( Ancient Egyptian: ; cop, /, romanized: , or , romanized: ; grc, Πηλουσιον, Pēlousion; la, Pēlūsium; Arabic: ; Egyptian Arabic: ) was an important city in the eastern extremes of Egypt's Nile Delta, 30 km to ...
linen worth 12 ''minas
Minas or MINAS may refer to:
People with the given name Minas
* Menas of Ethiopia (died 1563)
* Saint Menas (Minas, 285–309)
* Minias of Florence (Minas, Miniato, died 250)
* Minas Alozidis (born 1984), Greek hurdler
* Minas Avetisyan (1928 ...
'', and in the afternoon he wore India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
n linen worth 800 '' zuz''. But the sages said that in the morning, he wore garments worth 18 ''minas'', and in the afternoon he wore garments worth 12 ''minas''. The community paid for these sums, and the High Priest could spend more from his own funds if he wanted to.
Rav Ḥisda asked why instructed the High Priest to enter the inner precincts (the ''Kodesh Hakodashim'') to perform the Yom Kippur service in linen vestments instead of gold. Rav Ḥisda taught that it was because the accuser may not act as defender. Gold played the accuser because it was used in the Golden Calf
According to the Bible, the golden calf (עֵגֶל הַזָּהָב '' ‘ēgel hazzāhāv'') was an idol (a cult image) made by the Israelites when Moses went up to Mount Sinai. In Hebrew, the incident is known as ''ḥēṭə’ hā‘ēgel'' ...
, and thus gold was inappropriate for the High Priest when he sought atonement and thus played the defender.
A Midrash taught that everything God created in heaven has a replica on earth. (And thus, since all that is above is also below, God dwells on earth just as God dwells in heaven.) Referring to a heavenly man, says, "And, behold, the man clothed in linen." And of the High Priest on earth, says, "He shall put on the holy linen tunic." And the Midrash taught that God holds the things below dearer than those above, for God left the things in heaven to descend to dwell among those below, as reports, "And let them make Me a sanctuary, that I may dwell among them."
A Midrash taught that alludes to the merit of the Matriarchs by mentioning linen four times.
The Mishnah taught that the High Priest came to his bull (as required in an
6
, which was standing between the hall and the altar with its head to the south and its face to the west. The High Priest stood on the east with his face to the west. And he pressed both his hands on the bull and made confession, saying: "O Lord! I have done wrong, I have transgressed, I have sinned before You, I and my house. O Lord! Forgive the wrongdoings, the transgressions, and the sins that I have committed, transgressed, and sinned before You, I and my house, as it is written in the Torah of Moses Your servant (in ): "For on this day shall atonement be made for you to cleanse you; from all your sins shall you be clean before the Lord." And the people answered: "Blessed is the Name of God's glorious Kingdom, forever and ever!"
Rabbi Isaac contrasted the red cow in and the bull that the High Priest brought for himself on Yom Kippur in . Rabbi Isaac taught that a lay Israelite could slaughter one of the two, but not the other, but Rabbi Isaac did not know which was which. The Gemara reported that Rav
''Rav'' (or ''Rab,'' Modern Hebrew: ) is the Hebrew generic term for a person who teaches Torah; a Jewish spiritual guide; or a rabbi. For example, Pirkei Avot (1:6) states that:
The term ''rav'' is also Hebrew for ''rabbi''. (For a more nuan ...
and Samuel
Samuel ''Šəmūʾēl'', Tiberian: ''Šămūʾēl''; ar, شموئيل or صموئيل '; el, Σαμουήλ ''Samouḗl''; la, Samūēl is a figure who, in the narratives of the Hebrew Bible, plays a key role in the transition from the bibl ...
disagreed about the answer. Rav held it invalid for a lay Israelite to slaughter the red cow and valid for a lay Israelite to slaughter the High Priest's bull, while Samuel held it invalid for a lay Israelite to slaughter the High Priest's bull and valid for a lay Israelite to slaughter the red cow. The Gemara reported that Rav Zeira
Rabbi Zeira ( he, רבי זירא), known before his semicha as Rav Zeira ( he, רב זירא) and known in the Jerusalem Talmud as Rabbi Ze'era ( he, רבי זעירא), was a Jewish Talmudist, of the third generation of amoraim, who lived in th ...
(or some say Rav Zeira in the name of Rav) said that the slaughtering of the red cow by a lay Israelite was invalid, and Rav deduced from this statement the importance that specifies "Eleazar" and specifies that the law of the red cow is a "statute" (and thus required precise execution). But the Gemara challenged Rav's conclusion that the use of the terms "Eleazar" and "statute" in in connection with the red cow decided the matter, for in connection with the High Priest's bull, specifies "Aaron," and calls the law of a "statute," as well. The Gemara supposed that the characterization of of the law as a "statute" might apply to only the Temple services described in , and the slaughtering of the High Priest's bull might be regarded as not a Temple service. But the Gemara asked whether the same logic might apply to the red cow, as well, as it was not a Temple service, either. The Gemara posited that one might consider the red cow to have been in the nature of an offering for Temple upkeep. Rav Shisha son of Rav Idi taught that the red cow was like the inspection of skin diseases in , which was not a Temple service, yet required a priest's participation. The Gemara then turned to Samuel's position, that a lay Israelite could kill the red cow. Samuel interpreted the words "and he shall slay it before him" in to mean that a lay Israelite could slaughter the cow as Eleazar watched. The Gemara taught that Rav, on the other hand, explained the words "and he shall slay it before him" in to enjoin Eleazar not to divert his attention from the slaughter of the red cow. The Gemara reasoned that Samuel deduced that Eleazer must not divert his attention from the words "and the heifer shall be burnt in his sight" in (which one could similarly read to imply an injunction for Eleazar to pay close attention). And Rav explained the words "in his sight" in one place to refer to the slaughtering, and in the other to the burning, and the law enjoined his attention to both. In contrast, the Gemara posited that Eleazar might not have needed to pay close attention to the casting in of cedarwood, hyssop, and scarlet, because they were not part of the red cow itself.
A Midrash taught that God showed Abraham the bullock that would require the Israelites to sacrifice on the Yom Kippur. Reading , “And He said to him: ‘Take me a heifer of three years old (, ''meshuleshet''), a she-goat of three years old (, ''meshuleshet''), and a ram of three years old (, ''meshulash''),’” the Midrash read , ''meshuleshet'', to mean “three-fold” or “three kinds,” indicating sacrifices for three different purposes. The Midrash deduced that God thus showed Abraham three kinds of bullocks, three kinds of goats, and three kinds of rams that Abraham’s descendants would need to sacrifice. The three kinds of bullocks were: (1) the bullock that would require the Israelites to sacrifice on Yom Kippur, (2) the bullock that would require the Israelites to bring on account of unwitting transgression of the law, and (3) the heifer whose neck would require the Israelites to break. The three kinds of goats were: (1) the goats that would require the Israelites to sacrifice on festivals
A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, or eid. A festival co ...
, (2) the goats that would require the Israelites to sacrifice on the New Moon (, ''Rosh Chodesh
Rosh Chodesh or Rosh Hodesh ( he, ראש חודש; trans. ''Beginning of the Month''; lit. ''Head of the Month'') is the name for the first day of every month in the Hebrew calendar, marked by the birth of a new moon. It is considered a minor h ...
''), and (3) the goat that would require an individual to bring. The three kinds of rams were: (1) the guilt-offering of certain obligation that , for example, would require one who committed a trespass to bring, (2) the guilt-offering of doubt to which one would be liable when in doubt whether one had committed a transgression, and (3) the lamb to be brought by an individual. Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai
Shimon bar Yochai ( Zoharic Aramaic: שמעון בר יוחאי, ''Shim'on bar Yoḥai'') or Shimon ben Yochai (Mishnaic Hebrew: שמעון בן יוחאי, ''Shim'on ben Yoḥai''), also known by the acronym Rashbi, was a 2nd-century ''tannaiti ...
said that God showed Abraham all the atoning sacrifices except for the tenth of an ephah of fine meal in . The Rabbis said that God showed Abraham the tenth of an ephah as well, for says “all ''these'' (, ''eleh''),” just as says, “And you shall bring the meal-offering that is made of ''these'' things (, ''me-eleh''),” and the use of “these” in both verses hints that both verses refer to the same thing. And reading , “But the bird divided he not,” the Midrash deduced that God intimated to Abraham that the bird burnt-offering would be divided, but the bird sin-offering (which the dove and young pigeon symbolized) would not be divided.
The Mishnah taught that High Priest then went back to the east of the Temple Court, north of the altar. The two goats required by were there, as was an urn containing two lots. The urn was originally made of boxwood
''Buxus'' is a genus of about seventy species in the family Buxaceae. Common names include box or boxwood.
The boxes are native to western and southern Europe, southwest, southern and eastern Asia, Africa, Madagascar, northernmost South ...
, but Ben Gamala remade them in gold, earning him praise. Rabbi Judah explained that mentioned the two goats equally because they should be alike in color, height, and value. The Mishnah taught that the High Priest shook the urn and brought up the two lots. On one lot was inscribed "for the Lord," and on the other "for Azazel." The Deputy High Priest stood at the High Priest's right hand and the head of the ministering family at his left. If the lot inscribed "for the Lord" came up in his right hand, the Deputy High Priest would say "Mr. High Priest, raise your right hand!" And if the lot inscribed "for the Lord" came up in his left hand, the head of the family would say "Mr. High Priest, raise your left hand!" Then he placed them on the goats and said: "A sin-offering ‘to the Lord!'" (Rabbi Ishmael
Rabbi Yishmael ben Elisha Nachmani (Hebrew: רבי ישמעאל בן אלישע), often known as Rabbi Yishmael and sometimes given the title "Ba'al HaBaraita" (Hebrew: בעל הברייתא), was a rabbi of the 1st and 2nd centuries (third gener ...
taught that he did not need to say "a sin-offering" but just "to the Lord.") And then the people answered "Blessed is the Name of God's glorious Kingdom, forever and ever!"
Then the High Priest bound a thread of crimson wool on the head of the Azazel goat, and placed it at the gate from which it was to be sent away. And he placed the goat that was to be slaughtered at the slaughtering place. He came to his bull a second time, pressed his two hands on it and made confession, saying: "O Lord, I have dealt wrongfully, I have transgressed, I have sinned before You, I and my house, and the children of Aaron, Your holy people, o Lord, pray forgive the wrongdoings, the transgression, and the sins that I have committed, transgressed, and sinned before You, I and my house, and the children of Aaron, Your holy people. As it is written in the Torah of Moses, Your servant (in ): ‘For on this day atonement be made for you, to cleanse you; from all the sins shall you be clean before the Lord.'" And then the people answered: "Blessed is the Name of God's glorious Kingdom, forever and ever!"[Mishnah Yoma 4:2]
in, e.g., ''The Mishnah: A New Translation'', translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 270–71
Babylonian Talmud Yoma 41b
in, e.g., ''Koren Talmud Bavli: Yoma'', commentary by Adin Even-Israel (Steinsaltz), volume 9, page 203. Then he killed the bull.
Rabbi Isaac noted two red threads, one in connection with the red cow in , and the other in connection with the scapegoat in the Yom Kippur service of (whic
Mishnah Yoma 4:2
indicates was marked with a red thread[). Rabbi Isaac had heard that one required a definite size, while the other did not, but he did not know which was which. Rav Joseph reasoned that because (a]
Mishnah Yoma 6:6
explains[Mishnah Yoma 6:6]
in, e.g., ''The Mishnah: A New Translation'', translated by Jacob Neusner, page 275
Babylonian Talmud Yoma 67a
in, e.g., ''Koren Talmud Bavli: Yoma'', commentary by Adin Even-Israel (Steinsaltz), volume 9, page 322.) the red thread of the scapegoat was divided, that thread required a definite size, whereas that of the red cow, which did not need to be divided, did not require a definite size. Rami bar Hama
Rami bar Hama (Hebrew: רמי בר חמא; ''Rami'' = ''R. Ami'') was a Babylonian amora of the third generation.
Biography
He was a pupil of Rav Chisda, and a fellow student of Rava, who was somewhat his junior.
He frequently addressed questi ...
objected that the thread of the red cow required a certain weight (to be cast into the flames, as described in ). Raba said that the matter of this weight is disputed by Tannaim
''Tannaim'' ( Amoraic Hebrew: תנאים , singular , ''Tanna'' "repeaters", "teachers") were the rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the Mishnah, from approximately 10–220 CE. The period of the ''Tannaim'', also referred to as the Mis ...
.
When Rav Dimi came from the Land of Israel
The Land of Israel () is the traditional Jewish name for an area of the Southern Levant. Related biblical, religious and historical English terms include the Land of Canaan, the Promised Land, the Holy Land, and Palestine (see also Isra ...
, he said in the name of Rabbi Johanan that there were three red threads: one in connection with the red cow, the second in connection with the scapegoat, and the third in connection with the person with skin disease (the '' m'tzora'') in . Rav Dimi reported that one weighed ten ''zuz'', another weighed two ''selas'', and the third weighed a shekel
Shekel or sheqel ( akk, 𒅆𒅗𒇻 ''šiqlu'' or ''siqlu,'' he, שקל, plural he, שקלים or shekels, Phoenician: ) is an ancient Mesopotamian coin, usually of silver. A shekel was first a unit of weight—very roughly —and became c ...
, but he could not say which was which. When Rabin came, he said in the name of Rabbi Jonathan
Rabbi Jonathan (Hebrew: רבי יונתן, ''Rabi Yonatan'') was a '' tanna'' of the 2nd century and schoolfellow of R. Josiah, apart from whom he is rarely quoted.
Jonathan is generally so cited within
further designation; but there is ample re ...
that the thread in connection with the red cow weighed ten ''zuz'', that of the scapegoat weighed two ''selas'', and that of the person with skin disease weighed a shekel. Rabbi Johanan said that Rabbi Simeon ben Halafta and the Sages disagreed about the thread of the red cow, one saying that it weighed ten shekels, the other that it weighed one shekel. Rabbi Jeremiah of Difti said to Ravina that they disagreed not about the thread of the red cow, but about that of the scapegoat.
Reading , "My ordinances (, ''mishpatai'') shall you do, and My statutes (, ''chukotai'') shall you keep," the Sifra distinguished "ordinances" (, ''mishpatim'') from "statutes" (, ''chukim''). The term "ordinances" (, ''mishpatim''), taught the Sifra, refers to rules that even had they not been written in the Torah, it would have been entirely logical to write them, like laws pertaining to theft, sexual immorality, idolatry, blasphemy and murder. The term "statutes" (, ''chukim''), taught the Sifra, refers to those rules that the impulse to do evil (, ''yetzer hara
In Judaism, ''yetzer hara'' ( he, יֵצֶר הַרַע ''yēṣer haraʿ'') is the congenital inclination to do evil, by violating the will of God. The term is drawn from the phrase "the imagination of the heart of man sevil" (, ''yetzer lev-ha ...
'') and the nations of the world try to undermine, like eating pork (prohibited by and ), wearing wool-linen mixtures (, ''shatnez
''Shatnez'' (or ''shaatnez'', ; he, ) is cloth containing both wool and linen (linsey-woolsey), which Jewish law, derived from the Torah, prohibits wearing. The relevant biblical verses ( and ) prohibit wearing wool and linen fabrics in o ...
'', prohibited by and ), release from levirate marriage (, ''chalitzah
''Halizah'' (or ''chalitzah''; he, חליצה) is, under the Hebrew Bible, biblical system of levirate marriage known as ''yibbum'', the process by which a childless widow and a brother of her deceased husband may avoid the duty to marry.
The p ...
'', mandated by ), purification of a person affected by skin disease (, '' metzora'', regulated in ), and the goat sent off into the wilderness (the scapegoat regulated in ). In regard to these, taught the Sifra, the Torah says simply that God legislated them and we have no right to raise doubts about them.
Similarly, Rabbi Joshua of Siknin taught in the name of Rabbi Levi that the Evil Inclination (, ''yetzer hara'') criticizes four laws as without logical basis, and Scripture uses the expression "statute" (''chuk'') in connection with each: the laws of (1) a brother's wife (in ), (2) mingled kinds (in and ), (3) the scapegoat (in ), and (4) the red cow (in ).
The Mishnah taught that the High Priest said a short prayer in the outer area. The Jerusalem Talmud taught that this was the prayer of the High Priest on the Day of Atonement, when he left the Holy Place whole and in one piece: “May it be pleasing before you, Lord, our God of our fathers, that a decree of exile not be issued against us, not this day or this year, but if a decree of exile should be issued against us, then let it be exile to a place of Torah. May it be pleasing before you, Lord, our God and God of our fathers, that a decree of want not be issued against us, not this day or this year, but if a decree of want should be issued against us, then let it be a want because of the performance of religious duties. May it be pleasing before you, Lord, our God and God of our fathers, that this year be a year of cheap food, full bellies, good business; a year in which the earth forms clods, then is parched so as to form scabs, and then moistened with dew, so that your people, Israel, will not be in need of the help of one another. And do not heed the prayer of travelers that it not rain.” The Rabbis of Caesarea
Caesarea () ( he, קֵיסָרְיָה, ), ''Keysariya'' or ''Qesarya'', often simplified to Keisarya, and Qaysaria, is an affluent town in north-central Israel, which inherits its name and much of its territory from the ancient city of Caesare ...
added, “And concerning your people, Israel, that they not exercise dominion over one another.” And for the people who live in the Sharon plain
The Sharon plain ( ''HaSharon Arabic: سهل شارون Sahel Sharon'') is the central section of the Israeli coastal plain. The plain lies between the Mediterranean Sea to the west and the Samarian Hills, to the east. It stretches from Nahal ...
he would say this prayer, “May it be pleasing before you, Lord, our God and God of our fathers, that our houses not turn into our graves.”
The Mishnah taught that one would bring the High Priest the goat to be slaughtered, he would kill it, receive its blood in a basin, enter again the Sanctuary, and would sprinkle once upwards and seven times downwards. He would count: "one," "one and one," "one and two," and so on. Then he would go out and place the vessel on the second golden stand in the sanctuary.
Then the High Priest came to the scapegoat and laid his two hands on it, and he made confession, saying: "I beseech You, o Lord, Your people the house of Israel have failed, committed iniquity and transgressed before you. I beseech you, o Lord, atone the failures, the iniquities and the transgressions that Your people, the house of Israel, have failed, committed, and transgressed before you, as it is written in the Torah of Moses, Your servant (in ): ‘For on this day shall atonement be made for you, to cleanse you; from all your sins shall you be clean before the Lord.'" And when the Priests and the people standing in the Temple Court heard the fully pronounced Name of God come from the mouth of the High Priest, they bent their knees, bowed down, fell on their faces, and called out: "Blessed is the Name of God's glorious Kingdom, forever and ever!"
The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer
Pirkei de-Rabbi Eliezer (also Pirkei DeRabbi Eliezer; Aramaic: פרקי דרבי אליעזר, or פרקים דרבי אליעזר, Chapters of Rabbi Eliezer; abbreviated PdRE) is an aggadic-midrashic work on the Torah containing exegesis and re ...
taught that Sammael (identified with Satan
Satan,, ; grc, ὁ σατανᾶς or , ; ar, شيطانالخَنَّاس , also known as Devil in Christianity, the Devil, and sometimes also called Lucifer in Christianity, is an non-physical entity, entity in the Abrahamic religions ...
) complained to God that God had given him power over all the nations of the world except for Israel. God told Sammael that he had power over Israel on the Day of Atonement if and only if they had any sin. Therefore, Israel gave Sammael a present on the Day of Atonement, as says, "One lot for the Lord, and the other lot for Azazel" (identified with Satan or Sammael). The lot for God was the offering of a burnt offering, and the lot for Azazel was the goat as a sin offering, for all the iniquities of Israel were upon it, as says, "And the goat shall bear upon him all their iniquities." Sammael found no sin among them on the Day of Atonement and complained to God that they were like the ministering angels in heaven. Just as the ministering angels have bare feet, so have the Israelites bare feet on the Day of Atonement. Just as the ministering angels have neither food nor drink, so the Israelites have neither food nor drink on the Day of Atonement. Just as the ministering angels have no joints, likewise the Israelites stand on their feet. Just as the ministering angels are at peace with each other, so the Israelites are at peace with each other on the Day of Atonement. Just as the ministering angels are innocent of all sin on the Day of Atonement, so are the Israelites innocent of all sin on the Day of Atonement. On that day, God hears their prayers rather than the charges of their accuser, and God makes atonement for all the people, as says, "And he shall make atonement for the holy place."
Reading the injunction of , "And he shall make atonement for himself, ''and for his house''," a Midrash taught that a man without a wife dwells without good, without help, without joy, without blessing, and without atonement. Without good, as says that "it is ''not good'' that the man should be alone." Without help, as in , God says, "I will make him a ''help'' meet for him." Without joy, as says, "And you shall rejoice, you ''and your household''" (implying that one can rejoice only when there is a "household" with whom to rejoice). Without a blessing, as can be read, "To cause a blessing to rest on you ''for the sake of your house''" (that is, for the sake of your wife). Without atonement, as says, "And he shall make atonement for himself, ''and for his house''" (implying that one can make complete atonement only with a household). Rabbi Simeon said in the name of Rabbi Joshua ben Levi
Joshua ben Levi (Yehoshua ben Levi) was an Amoraim, amora, a scholar of the Talmud, who lived in the Land of Israel in the first half of the third century. He lived and taught in the city of Lod. He was an elder contemporary of Johanan ben Napp ...
, without peace too, as says, "And peace be to your house." Rabbi Joshua of Siknin said in the name of Rabbi Levi, without life too, as Ecclesiastes
Ecclesiastes (; hbo, קֹהֶלֶת, Qōheleṯ, grc, Ἐκκλησιαστής, Ekklēsiastēs) is one of the Ketuvim ("Writings") of the Hebrew Bible and part of the Wisdom literature of the Christian Old Testament. The title commonly use ...
says, "Enjoy life with the wife whom you love." Rabbi Hiyya ben Gomdi said, also incomplete, as says, "male and female created He them, and blessed them, and called their name Adam," that is, "man" (and thus only together are they "man"). Some say a man without a wife even impairs the Divine likeness, as says, "For in the image of God made He man," and immediately thereafter says, "And you, be fruitful, and multiply (implying that the former is impaired if one does not fulfill the latter).
The Mishnah taught that they handed the scapegoat over to him who was to lead it away. All were permitted to lead it away, but the Priests made it a rule not to permit an ordinary Israelite to lead it away. Rabbi Jose said that Arsela of Sepphoris once led it away, although he was not a priest. The people went with him from booth to booth, except the last one. The escorts would not go with him up to the precipice, but watched from a distance. The one leading the scapegoat divided the thread of crimson wool, and tied one half to the rock, the other half between the scapegoat horns, and pushed the scapegoat from behind. And it went rolling down and before it had reached half its way down the hill, it was dashed to pieces. He came back and sat down under the last booth until it grew dark. His garments unclean become unclean from the moment that he has gone outside the wall of Jerusalem
Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
, although Rabbi Simeon taught that they became unclean from the moment that he pushed it over the precipice.[
The Sages taught that if one pushed the goat down the precipice and it did not die, then one had to go down after the goat and kill it.
The Mishnah interpreted to teach that the goat sent to Azazel could atone for all sins, even sins punishable by death.
They would set up guards at stations, and from these would waive towels to signal that the goat had reached the wilderness. When the signal was relayed to Jerusalem, they told the High Priest: "The goat has reached the wilderness." Rabbi Ishmael taught that they had another sign too: They tied a thread of crimson to the door of the Temple, and when the goat reached the wilderness, the thread would turn white, as it is written in "Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be as white as snow."
The Mishnah compared the person who burned the red cow in , the person who burned the bulls burned pursuant to or , and the person who led away the scapegoat pursuant to an]
26
These persons rendered unclean the clothes worn while doing these acts. But the red cow, the bull, and the scapegoat did not themselves render unclean clothes with which they came in contact. The Mishnah imagined the clothing saying to the person: "Those that render you unclean do not render me unclean, but you render me unclean."
Rabbi Hanina noted that for all the vessels that Moses made, the Torah gave the measurements of their length, breadth, and height (in for the altar, for the table, and for the incense altar). But for the Ark-cover, gave its length and breadth, but not its height. Rabbi Hanina taught that one can deduce the Ark-cover's height from the smallest of the vessel features, the border of the table, concerning which says, "And you shall make for it a border of a handbreadth round about." Just as the height of the table's border was a handbreadth, so was it also for the Ark-cover. Rav Huna
Rav Huna (Hebrew: רב הונא) was a Jewish Talmud, Talmudist and Exilarch who lived in Babylonia, known as an Amoraim, amora of the second generation and head of the Talmudic Academies in Babylonia, Academy of Sura; he was born about 216 (212 ...
taught that the height of the Ark-cover may be deduced from , which refers to "the ''face'' of the Ark-cover," and a "face" cannot be smaller than a handbreadth. Rav Aha bar Jacob taught a tradition that the face of the cherub
A cherub (; plural cherubim; he, כְּרוּב ''kərūḇ'', pl. ''kərūḇīm'', likely borrowed from a derived form of akk, 𒅗𒊏𒁍 ''karabu'' "to bless" such as ''karibu'', "one who blesses", a name for the lamassu) is one of the u ...
im was not less than a handbreadth, and Rav Huna also made his deduction about the Ark-cover's height from the parallel.
Rabbi Eliezer noted that both (with regard to burning the Yom Kippur sin offerings) and (with regard to slaughtering the red cow) say "outside the camp." Rabbi Eliezer concluded that both actions had to be conducted outside the three camps of the Israelites, and in the time of the Temple in Jerusalem, both actions had to be conducted to the east of Jerusalem.
Chapter 8 of tractate Yoma in the Mishnah and Babylonian Talmud and chapter 4 of tractate Kippurim (Yoma) in the Tosefta interpreted the laws of self-denial in and . The Mishnah taught that on Yom Kippur, one must not eat, drink, wash, anoint oneself, put on sandals, or have sexual intercourse. Rabbi Eliezer (whom the halachah
''Halakha'' (; he, הֲלָכָה, ), also transliterated as ''halacha'', ''halakhah'', and ''halocho'' ( ), is the collective body of Jewish religious laws which is derived from the written and Oral Torah. Halakha is based on biblical commandm ...
follows) taught that a king or bride may wash the face, and a woman after childbirth may put on sandals. But the sages forbad doing so. The Tosefta taught that one must not put on even felt shoes. But the Tosefta taught that minors can do all these things except put on sandals, for appearance's sake. The Mishnah held a person culpable to punishment for eating an amount of food equal to a large date
Date or dates may refer to:
*Date (fruit), the fruit of the date palm (''Phoenix dactylifera'')
Social activity
*Dating, a form of courtship involving social activity, with the aim of assessing a potential partner
**Group dating
*Play date, an ...
(with its pit included), or for drinking a mouthful of liquid. For the purpose of calculating the amount consumed, one combines all amounts of food together, and all amounts liquids together, but not amounts of foods together with amounts of liquids. The Mishnah obliged one who unknowingly or forgetfully ate and drank to bring only one sin-offering. But one who unknowingly or forgetfully ate and performed labor had to bring two sin-offerings. The Mishnah did not hold one culpable who ate foods unfit to eat, or drank liquids unfit to drink (like fish-brine). The Mishnah taught that one should not afflict children at all on Yom Kippur. In the two years before they become Bar or Bat Mitzvah, one should train children to become used to religious observances (for example by fasting for several hours). The Mishnah taught that one should give food to a pregnant woman who smelled food and requested it. One should feed to a sick person at the direction of experts, and if no experts are present, one feeds a sick person who requests food. The Mishnah taught that one may even give unclean food to one seized by a ravenous hunger, until the person's eyes are opened. Rabbi Matthia ben Heresh said that one who has a sore throat may drink medicine even on the Sabbath, because it presented the possibility of danger to human life, and every danger to human life suspends the laws of the Sabbath.
Rav Ḥisda taught that the five afflictions of Yom Kippur that the Mishnah taught (eating and in drinking, bathing, smearing the body with oil, wearing shoes, and conjugal relations) are based on the five times that the Torah mentions the afflictions of Yom Kippur: (1) “And on the tenth of this seventh month you shall have a holy convocation, and you shall afflict your souls” (); (2) “But on the tenth of this seventh month is the day of atonement, it shall be a holy convocation for you and you shall afflict your souls” (); (3) “It shall be for you a Shabbat of solemn rest, and you shall afflict your souls (); (4) “It is a Shabbat of solemn rest for you, and you shall afflict your souls” (); (5) “And it shall be a statute for you forever, in the seventh month on the tenth of the month, you shall afflict your souls” ().
Rabbi Akiva
Akiva ben Yosef (Mishnaic Hebrew: ''ʿĂqīvāʾ ben Yōsēf''; – 28 September 135 CE), also known as Rabbi Akiva (), was a leading Jewish scholar and sage, a '' tanna'' of the latter part of the first century and the beginning of the second c ...
(or some say Rabban Johanan ben Zakai
:''See Yohanan for more rabbis by this name''.
Yohanan ben Zakkai ( he, יוֹחָנָן בֶּן זַכַּאי, ''Yōḥānān ben Zakkaʾy''; 1st century CE), sometimes abbreviated as Ribaz () for Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai, was one of the Tan ...
) never said in the house of study that it was time to stop studying, except on the eve of Passover and the eve of the Yom Kippur. On the eve of Passover, it was because of the children, so that they might not fall asleep, and on the eve of the Day of Atonement, it was so that they should feed their children before the fast.
The Gemara taught that in conducting the self-denial required in and , one adds a little time from the surrounding ordinary weekdays to the holy day. Rabbi Ishmael derived this rule from what had been taught in a Baraita: One might read , "And you shall afflict your souls on the ninth day," literally to mean that one begins fasting the entire day on the ninth day of the month; therefore says, "in the evening." One might read "in the evening" to mean "after dark" (which the Hebrew calendar would reckon as part of the tenth day); therefore says, "in the ninth day." The Gemara thus concluded that one begins fasting while it is still day on the ninth day, adding some time from the profane day (the ninth) to the holy day (the tenth). The Gemara read the words, "from evening to evening," in to teach that one adds some time to Yom Kippur from both the evening before and the evening after. Because says, "You shall rest," the Gemara applied the rule to Sabbaths as well. Because says "your Sabbath" (your day of rest), the Gemara applied the rule to other Festivals (in addition to Yom Kippur); wherever the law creates an obligation to rest, we add time to that obligation from the surrounding profane days to the holy day. Rabbi Akiva, however, read , "And you shall afflict your souls on the ninth day," to teach the lesson learned by Rav Hiyya bar Rav from Difti (that is, Dibtha, below the Tigris
The Tigris () is the easternmost of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of the Armenian Highlands through the Syrian and Arabian Deserts, and empties into the ...
, southeast of Babylon
''Bābili(m)''
* sux, 𒆍𒀭𒊏𒆠
* arc, 𐡁𐡁𐡋 ''Bāḇel''
* syc, ܒܒܠ ''Bāḇel''
* grc-gre, Βαβυλών ''Babylṓn''
* he, בָּבֶל ''Bāvel''
* peo, 𐎲𐎠𐎲𐎡𐎽𐎢 ''Bābiru''
* elx, 𒀸𒁀𒉿𒇷 ''Babi ...
). Rav Hiyya bar Rav from Difti taught in a Baraita that says "the ninth day" to indicate that if people eat and drink on the ninth day, then Scripture credits it to them as if they fasted on both the ninth and the tenth days (because calls the eating and drinking on the ninth day "fasting").
The Gemara read the definite article in the term "the homeborn" in to include women in the extension of the period of affliction to Yom Kippur eve.
The Jerusalem Talmud taught that the evil impulse (, ''yetzer hara'') craves only what is forbidden. The Jerusalem Talmud illustrated this by relating that on the Day of Atonement, Rabbi Mana went to visit Rabbi Haggai, who was feeling weak. Rabbi Haggai told Rabbi Mana that he was thirsty. Rabbi Mana told Rabbi Haggai to go drink something. Rabbi Mana left and after a while came back. Rabbi Mana asked Rabbi Haggai what happened to his thirst. Rabbi Haggai replied that when Rabbi Mana told him that he could drink, his thirst went away.
The Mishnah taught that death and observance of Yom Kippur with penitence atone for sin. Penitence atones for lighter sins, while for severer sins, penitence suspends God's punishment, until Yom Kippur comes to atone. The Mishnah taught that no opportunity for penance will be given to one who says: "I shall sin and repent, sin and repent." And Yom Kippur does not atone for one who says: "I shall sin and Yom Kippur will atone for me." Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah
Eleazar ben Azariah ( he, אלעזר בן עזריה) was a 1st-century CE Jewish tanna, i.e. Mishnaic sage. He was of the second generation and a junior contemporary of Gamaliel II, Eliezer b. Hyrcanus, Joshua b. Hananiah, and Akiva.
Biogr ...
derived from the words "From all your sins before the Lord shall you be clean" in that Yom Kippur atones for sins against God, but Yom Kippur does not atone for transgressions between one person and another, until the one person has pacified the other. Rabbi Akiva
Akiva ben Yosef (Mishnaic Hebrew: ''ʿĂqīvāʾ ben Yōsēf''; – 28 September 135 CE), also known as Rabbi Akiva (), was a leading Jewish scholar and sage, a '' tanna'' of the latter part of the first century and the beginning of the second c ...
said that Israel is fortunate, for just as waters cleanse the unclean, so does God cleanse Israel.
Rabbi Eleazar interpreted the words of , "from all your sins shall you be clean before the Lord," to teach that the Day of Atonement expiates sins that are known only to God.
Rabbi Eleazer son of Rabbi Simeon taught that the Day of Atonement effects atonement even if no goat is offered. But the goat effected atonement only with the Day of Atonement.
Mar Zutra
Mar Zutra ( he, מר זוטרא, died 417 CE) was a Babylonian rabbi, of the sixth generation of amoraim.
Biography
He was a student of Rav Papa, whom he frequently quoted, and Rav Papi.
His closest colleagues were Rav Ashi and Amemar. The thr ...
taught that the merit of a fast day lies in the charity dispensed.
The Gemara told that a poor man lived in Mar Ukba's neighborhood to whom he regularly sent 400 ''zuz'' on the eve of every Yom Kippur. Once Mar Ukba sent his son to deliver the 400 ''zuz''. His son came back and reported that the poor man did not need Mar Ukba's help. When Mar Ukba asked his son what he had seen, his son replied that they were sprinkling aged wine before the poor man to improve the aroma in the room. Mar Ukba said that if the poor man was that delicate, then Mar Ukba would double the amount of his gift and send it back to the poor man.
Rabbi Eleazar taught that when the Temple stood, a person used to bring a shekel and so make atonement. Now that the Temple no longer stands, if people give to charity, all will be well, and if they do not, heathens will come and take from them forcibly (what they should have given away). And even so, God will reckon to them as if they had given charity, as says, "I will make your exactors righteousness ''tzedakah''"
Rav Bibi bar Abaye taught that on the eve of the Day of Atonement, a person should confess saying: "I confess all the evil I have done before You; I stood in the way of evil; and as for all the evil I have done, I shall no more do the like; may it be Your will, O Lord my God, that You should pardon me for all my iniquities, and forgive me for all my transgressions, and grant me atonement for all my sins." This is indicated by , which says, "Let the wicked forsake his way, and the man of iniquity his thoughts." Rabbi Isaac compared it to a person fitting together two boards, joining them one to another. And Rabbi Jose ben Hanina compared it to a person fitting together two bed-legs, joining them one to another. (This harmoniously does a person become joined to God when the person genuinely repents.)
The Rabbis taught that the obligation to confess sins comes on the eve of the Day of Atonement, as it grows dark. But the Sages said that one should confess before one has eaten and drunk, lest one become inebriated in the course of the meal. And even if one has confessed before eating and drinking, one should confess again after having eaten and drunk, because perhaps some wrong happened during the meal. And even if one has confessed during the evening prayer, one should confess again during the morning prayer. And even if one has confessed during the morning prayer, one should do so again during the Musaf
Mussaf (also spelled Musaf or Musof) is an additional service that is recited on Shabbat, Yom Tov, Chol Hamoed, and Rosh Chodesh. The service, which is traditionally combined with the Shacharit in synagogues, is considered to be additional to the ...
additional prayer. And even if one has confessed during the Musaf, one should do so again during the afternoon prayer. And even if one has done so in the afternoon prayer, one should confess again in the Ne'ilah
Ne'ila ( he, נעילה, lit=locking), the ''concluding service'', is a special Jewish prayer service that is held only on Yom Kippur. It is the time when final prayers of repentance are recited at the closing of Yom Kippur. Neilah marks the fifth ...
concluding prayer. The Gemara taught that the individual should say the confession after the (silent recitation of the) Amidah
The ''Amidah Amuhduh'' ( he, תפילת העמידה, ''Tefilat HaAmidah'', 'The Standing Prayer'), also called the ''Shemoneh Esreh'' ( 'eighteen'), is the central prayer of the Jewish liturgy. Observant Jews recite the ''Amidah'' at each o ...
prayer, and the public reader says it in the middle of the Amidah. Rav taught that the confession begins: "You know the secrets of eternity . . . ." Samuel, however, taught that the confession begins: "From the depths of the heart . . . ." Levi
Levi (; ) was, according to the Book of Genesis, the third of the six sons of Jacob and Leah (Jacob's third son), and the founder of the Israelite Tribe of Levi (the Levites, including the Kohanim) and the great-grandfather of Aaron, Moses and M ...
said: "And in Your Torah it is said, For on this day He shall make atonement for you.' (.) Rabbi Johanan taught that the confession begins: "Lord of the Universe, . . . ." Rav Judah said: "Our iniquities are too many to count, and our sins too numerous to be counted." Rav Hamnuna
Hamnuna (Hebrew: המנונא) is the name of several rabbis from the period of the Talmud, among them:
* Hamnuna Saba ("the elder"). Second generation Babylonian amora (mid third century CE). A pupil of Rav. After Rav, he became the head of th ...
said: "My God, before I was formed, I was of no worth, and now that I have been formed, it is as if I had not been formed. I am dust in my life, how much more in my death. Behold, I am before You like a vessel full of shame and reproach. May it be Your will that I sin no more, and what I have sinned wipe away in Your mercy, but not through suffering." That was the confession of sins used by Rav all the year round, and by Rav Hamnuna the younger, on the Day of Atonement. Mar Zutra taught that one should say such prayers only if one has not already said, "Truly, we have sinned," but if one has said, "Truly, we have sinned," no more is necessary. For Bar Hamdudi taught that once he stood before Samuel, who was sitting, and when the public reader said, "Truly, we have sinned," Samuel rose, and so Bar Hamdudi inferred that this was the main confession.
Resh Lakish taught that great is repentance, for because of it, Heaven accounts premeditated sins as errors, as says, "Return, O Israel, to the Lord, your God, for you have stumbled in your iniquity." "Iniquity" refers to premeditated sins, and yet Hosea
In the Hebrew Bible, Hosea ( or ; he, הוֹשֵׁעַ – ''Hōšēaʿ'', 'Salvation'; gr, Ὡσηέ – ''Hōsēé''), son of Beeri, was an 8th-century BCE prophet in Israel and the nominal primary author of the Book of Hosea. He is the ...
calls them "stumbling," implying that Heaven considers those who repent of intentional sins as if they acted accidentally. But the Gemara said that that is not all, for Resh Lakish also said that repentance is so great that with it, Heaven accounts premeditated sins as though they were merits, as says, "And when the wicked turns from his wickedness, and does that which is lawful and right, he shall live thereby." The Gemara reconciled the two positions, clarifying that in the sight of Heaven, repentance derived from love transforms intentional sins to merits, while repentance out of fear transforms intentional sins to unwitting transgressions.
Reading Song of Songs , Rabbi Joshua ben Levi compared Israel to a nut-tree. Rabbi Azariah taught that just as when a nut falls into the dirt, you can wash it, restore it to its former condition, and make it fit for eating, so however much Israel may be defiled with iniquities all the rest of the year, when the Day of Atonement comes, it makes atonement for them, as says, "For on this day shall atonement be made for you, to cleanse you."
The Mishnah taught that Divine judgment is passed on the world at four seasons (based on the world's actions in the preceding year) — at Passover for produce; at Shavuot
(''Ḥag HaShavuot'' or ''Shavuos'')
, nickname = English: "Feast of Weeks"
, observedby = Jews and Samaritans
, type = Jewish and Samaritan
, begins = 6th day of Sivan (or the Sunday following the 6th day of Sivan i ...
for fruit; at Rosh Hashanah
Rosh HaShanah ( he, רֹאשׁ הַשָּׁנָה, , literally "head of the year") is the Jewish New Year. The biblical name for this holiday is Yom Teruah (, , lit. "day of shouting/blasting") It is the first of the Jewish High Holy Days (, , " ...
all creatures pass before God like children of maron (one by one), as says, "He Who fashions the heart of them all, Who considers all their doings." And on Sukkot, judgment is passed in regard to rain
Rain is water droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. It provides water f ...
. Rabbi Meir
Rabbi Meir ( he, רַבִּי מֵאִיר) was a Jewish sage who lived in the time of the Mishnah. He was considered one of the greatest of the Tannaim of the fourth generation (139-163). He is the third most frequently mentioned sage in the Mishn ...
taught that all are judged on Rosh Hashanah and the decree is sealed on Yom Kippur. Rabbi Judah, however, taught that all are judged on Rosh Hashanah and the decree of each and every one of them is sealed in its own time — at Passover for grain, at Shavuot for fruits of the orchard, at Sukkot for water. And the decree of humankind is sealed on Yom Kippur. Rabbi Jose taught that humankind is judged every single day, as says, "What is man, that You should magnify him, and that You should set Your heart upon him, and that You should remember him every morning, and try him every moment?"
Rav Kruspedai
''Amoraim'' (Aramaic: plural or , singular ''Amora'' or ''Amoray''; "those who say" or "those who speak over the people", or "spokesmen") refers to Jewish scholars of the period from about 200 to 500 CE, who "said" or "told over" the teachin ...
said in the name of Rabbi Johanan that on Rosh Hashanah, three books are opened in Heaven — one for the thoroughly wicked, one for the thoroughly righteous, and one for those in between. The thoroughly righteous are immediately inscribed definitively in the book of life. The thoroughly wicked are immediately inscribed definitively in the book of death. And the fate of those in between is suspended from Rosh Hashanah to Yom Kippur. If they deserve well, then they are inscribed in the book of life; if they do not deserve well, then they are inscribed in the book of death. Rabbi Abin said that tells us this when it says, "Let them be blotted out of the book of the living, and not be written with the righteous." "Let them be blotted out from the book" refers to the book of the wicked. "Of the living" refers to the book of the righteous. "And not be written with the righteous" refers to the book of those in between. Rav Nahman bar Isaac derived this from , where Moses told God, "if not, blot me, I pray, out of Your book that You have written." "Blot me, I pray" refers to the book of the wicked. "Out of Your book" refers to the book of the righteous. "That you have written" refers to the book of those in between. It was taught in a Baraita that the House of Shammai
The House of Hillel (Beit Hillel) and House of Shammai (Beit Shammai) were, among Jewish scholars, two schools of thought during the period of tannaim, named after the sages Hillel and Shammai (of the last century BCE and the early 1st century CE) ...
said that there will be three groups at the Day of Judgment — one of thoroughly righteous, one of thoroughly wicked, and one of those in between. The thoroughly righteous will immediately be inscribed definitively as entitled to everlasting life; the thoroughly wicked will immediately be inscribed definitively as doomed to Gehinnom
The Valley of Hinnom ( he, , lit=Valley of the son of Hinnom, translit=Gēʾ ḇen-Hīnnōm) is a historic valley surrounding Ancient Jerusalem from the west and southwest. The valley is also known by the name Gehinnom ( ''Gēʾ-Hīnnōm'', ...
, as says, "And many of them who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life and some to reproaches and everlasting abhorrence." Those in between will go down to Gehinnom and scream and rise again, as says, "And I will bring the third part through the fire, and will refine them as silver is refined, and will try them as gold is tried. They shall call on My name and I will answer them." Of them, Hannah said in , "The Lord kills and makes alive, He brings down to the grave and brings up." The House of Hillel
The House of Hillel (Beit Hillel) and House of Shammai (Beit Shammai) were, among Jewish scholars, two schools of thought during the period of tannaim, named after the sages Hillel and Shammai (of the last century BCE and the early 1st century CE) ...
, however, taught that God inclines the scales towards grace (so that those in between do not have to descend to Gehinnom), and of them David
David (; , "beloved one") (traditional spelling), , ''Dāwūd''; grc-koi, Δαυΐδ, Dauíd; la, Davidus, David; gez , ዳዊት, ''Dawit''; xcl, Դաւիթ, ''Dawitʿ''; cu, Давíдъ, ''Davidŭ''; possibly meaning "beloved one". w ...
said in , "I love that the Lord should hear my voice and my supplication . . . The cords of death compassed me, and the straits of the netherworld got hold upon me," and on their behalf David composed the conclusion of , "I was brought low and He saved me."
Rav Mana of Sha'ab (in Galilee) and Rav Joshua of Siknin in the name of Rav Levi compared repentance at the High Holidays to the case of a province that owed arrears on its taxes to the king, and the king came to collect the debt. When the king was within ten miles, the nobility of the province came out and praised him, so he freed the province of a third of its debt. When he was within five miles, the middle-class people of the province came out and praised him, so he freed the province of another third of its debt. When he entered the province, all the people of the province — men, women, and children — came out and praised him, so he freed them of all of their debt. The king told them to let bygones be bygones; from then on they would start a new account. In a similar manner, on the eve of Rosh Hashanah, the leaders of the generation fast, and God absolves them of a third of their iniquities. From Rosh Hashanah to Yom Kippur, private individuals fast, and God absolves them of a third of their iniquities. On Yom Kippur, everyone fasts — men, women and children — and God tells Israel to let bygones be bygones; from then onwards we begin a new account. From Yom Kippur to Sukkot, all Israel are busy with the performance of religious duties. One is busy with a sukkah, one with a lulav. On the first day of Sukkot, all Israel stand in the presence of God with their palm-branches and etrogs in honor of God's name, and God tells them to let bygones be bygones; from now we begin a new account. Thus in , Moses exhorts Israel: "You shall take on the first day f Sukkot
F, or f, is the sixth letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''ef'' (pronounced ), and the plural is ''efs''.
Hist ...
the fruit of goodly trees, branches of palm trees and the boughs of thick trees, and willows of the brook; and you shall rejoice before the Lord your God." Rabbi Aha
Rabbi Aha ( he, רבי אחא, read as ''Rabbi Achah'') was a rabbi of the Land of Israel, of the fourth century (fourth generation of amoraim).
Biography
He resided at Lod, but later settled in Tiberias where Huna II, Judah ben Pazi, and himse ...
explained that the words, "For with You there is forgiveness," in signify that forgiveness waits with God from Rosh Hashanah onward. And forgiveness waits that long so (in the words of ) "that You may be feared" and God may impose God's awe upon God's creatures (through the suspense and uncertainty).
Rabban Simeon ben Gamaliel
Simeon ben Gamliel (I) ( or רשב"ג הראשון; c. 10 BCE – 70 CE) was a '' Tanna'' sage and leader of the Jewish people. He served as nasi of the Great Sanhedrin at Jerusalem during the outbreak of the First Jewish–Roman War, succeeding ...
said that there never were greater days of joy in Israel than the 15th of Av and Yom Kippur. On those days, the daughters of Jerusalem would come out in borrowed white garments, dance in the vineyards, and exclaim to the young men to lift up their eyes and choose for themselves.
A Baraita noted a difference in wording between , regarding the investiture of the High Priest, and , regarding the qualifications for performing the Yom Kippur service. says, "The holy garments of Aaron shall be for his sons after him, to be anointed in them, and to be consecrated in them. Seven days shall the son that is priest in his stead put them on." This text demonstrated that a priest who had put on the required larger number of garments and who had been anointed on each of the seven days was permitted to serve as High Priest. , however, says, "And the priest who shall be anointed and who shall be consecrated to be priest in his father's stead shall make the atonement." The Baraita interpreted the words, "Who shall be anointed and who shall be consecrated," to mean one who had been anointed and consecrated in whatever way (as long as he had been consecrated, even if some detail of the ceremony had been omitted). The Baraita thus concluded that if the priest had put on the larger number of garments for only one day and had been anointed on each of the seven days, or if he had been anointed for only one day and had put on the larger number of garments for seven days, he would also be permitted to perform the Yom Kippur service.
Reading the words, “He shall make atonement,” in , a Baraita taught that this extended atonement to Canaanite slaves who worked for Jews (as these slaves were obligated in certain commandments and are therefore also warranted atonement).
The Jerusalem Talmud reported that Rav Idi in the name of Rabbi Isaac taught that includes the words, “As the Lord commanded him,” to teach that the High Priest was required to read as part of the Yom Kippur service.
The Jerusalem Talmud reported that Jews wear white on the High Holy Days
The High Holidays also known as the High Holy Days, or Days of Awe in Judaism, more properly known as the Yamim Noraim ( he, יָמִים נוֹרָאִים, ''Yāmīm Nōrāʾīm''; "Days of Awe")
#strictly, the holidays of Rosh HaShanah ("Jew ...
. Rabbi Hama the son of Rabbi Hanina and Rabbi Hoshaiah disagreed about how to interpret , “And what great nation is there, that has statutes and ordinances so righteous as all this law.” One said: “And what great nation is there?” Ordinarily those who know they are on trial wear black, wrap themselves in black, and let their beards grow, since they do not know how their trial will turn out. But that is not how it is with Israel. Rather, on the day of their trial, they wear white, wrap themselves in white, and shave their beards and eat, drink, and rejoice, for they know that God does miracles for them.
Leviticus chapter 17
Rabbi Berekiah
R. Berekiah (or R. Berekhyah; he, רבי ברכיה, read as ''Rabbi Berekhyah'') was an ''Amoraim, Amora'' of the Land of Israel, of the fourth generation of the Amora era. He is known for his work on the Aggadah, and there are many of his statem ...
said in the name of Rabbi Isaac that in the Time to Come, God will make a banquet for God's righteous servants, and whoever had not eaten meat from an animal that died other than through ritual slaughtering (, ''neveilah'', prohibited by ) in this world will have the privilege of enjoying it in the World to Come
The world to come, age to come, heaven on Earth, and the Kingdom of God are eschatological phrases reflecting the belief that the current world or current age is flawed or cursed and will be replaced in the future by a better world, age, or par ...
. This is indicated by , which says, "And the fat of that which dies of itself (, ''neveilah'') and the fat of that which is torn by beasts (, ''tereifah''), may be used for any other service, but you shall not eat it," so that one might eat it in the Time to Come. (By one's present self-restraint one might merit to partake of the banquet in the Hereafter.) For this reason Moses admonished the Israelites in , "This is the animal that you shall eat."
A Midrash interpreted , "The Lord lets loose the prisoners," to read, "The Lord permits the forbidden," and thus to teach that what God forbade in one case, God permitted in another. God forbade the abdominal fat of cattle (in ), but permitted it in the case of beasts. God forbade consuming the sciatic nerve
The sciatic nerve, also called the ischiadic nerve, is a large nerve in humans and other vertebrate animals which is the largest branch of the sacral plexus and runs alongside the hip joint and down the lower limb. It is the longest and widest si ...
in animals (in ) but permitted it in fowl. God forbade eating meat without ritual slaughter (in ) but permitted it for fish. Similarly, Rabbi Abba and Rabbi Jonathan in the name of Rabbi Levi taught that God permitted more things than God forbade. For example, God counterbalanced the prohibition of pork (in and ) by permitting mullet (which some say tastes like pork).
A Tanna taught that the prohibition of the high place
"High place", or "high places", (Hebrew במה ''bamah'' and plural במות ''bamot'' or ''bamoth'') in a biblical context always means "place(s) of worship". This rendering has etymological justification, as appears from the poetical use of the ...
s stated in took place on the first of Nisan. The Tanna taught that the first of Nisan took ten crowns of distinction by virtue of the ten momentous events that occurred on that day. The first of Nisan was: (1) the first day of the Creation (as reported in ), (2) the first day of the princes' offerings (as reported in ), (3) the first day for the priesthood to make the sacrificial offerings (as reported in ), (4) the first day for public sacrifice, (5) the first day for the descent of fire from Heaven (as reported in ), (6) the first for the priests' eating of sacred food in the sacred area, (7) the first for the dwelling of the Shechinah in Israel (as implied by ), (8) the first for the Priestly Blessing
The Priestly Blessing or priestly benediction, ( he, ברכת כהנים; translit. ''birkat kohanim''), also known in rabbinic literature as raising of the hands (Hebrew ''nesiat kapayim'') or rising to the platform (Hebrew ''aliyah ledukhan'') ...
of Israel (as reported in , employing the blessing prescribed by ), (9) the first for the prohibition of the high places (as stated in ), and (10) the first of the months of the year (as instructed in ). Rav Assi of Hozna'ah deduced from the words, "And it came to pass in the first month of the second year, on the first day of the month," in that the Tabernacle was erected on the first of Nisan.
The Gemara interpreted the prohibition on consuming blood in to apply to the blood of any type of animal or fowl, but not to the blood of eggs, grasshoppers, and fish.
Leviticus chapter 18
Rabbi Ḥiyya taught that the words “I am the Lord your God” appear twice, in an
4
to teach that God was the God who inflicted punishment upon the Generation of the Flood, Sodom, and Egypt, and God is the same God who will inflict punishment on anyone who will act as they did.
Applying the prohibition against following the ways of the Canaanites in , the Sages of the Mishnah prohibited going out with talismans like a locust's egg, a fox's tooth, or a nail from a gallows, but Rabbi Meir allowed it, and the Gemara reported that Abaye
Abaye ( he, אַבַּיֵי) was a rabbi of the Jewish Talmud who lived in Babylonia, known as an Amoraim, amora of the fourth generation. He was born about the close of the third century, and died 337 Common Era, CE.
Biography
His father, Kaylil ...
and Rava agreed, excepting from the prohibition of any practice of evident therapeutic value.
calls on the Israelites to obey God's "statutes" (''chukim'') and "ordinances" (''mishpatim''). The Rabbis in a Baraita taught that the "ordinances" (''mishpatim'') were commandments that logic would have dictated that we follow even had Scripture not commanded them, like the laws concerning idolatry, adultery, bloodshed, robbery, and blasphemy. And "statutes" (''chukim'') were commandments that the Adversary challenges us to violate as beyond reason, like those relating to ''shaatnez
''Shatnez'' (or ''shaatnez'', ; he, ) is cloth containing both wool and linen (linsey-woolsey), which Jewish law, derived from the Torah, prohibits wearing. The relevant biblical verses ( and ) prohibit wearing wool and linen fabrics in one ...
'' (in and ), ''halizah
''Halizah'' (or ''chalitzah''; he, חליצה) is, under the biblical system of levirate marriage known as ''yibbum'', the process by which a childless widow and a brother of her deceased husband may avoid the duty to marry.
The process involve ...
'' (in ), purification of the person with ''tzaraat
''Tzaraath'' (Hebrew צָרַעַת ''ṣāraʿaṯ''), variously transcribed into English and frequently mistranslated as leprosy, describes various ritually unclean disfigurative conditions of the skin, hair of the beard and head, clothing mad ...
'' (in ), and the scapegoat (in ). So that people do not think these "ordinances" (''mishpatim'') to be empty acts, in , God says, "I am the Lord," indicating that the Lord made these statutes, and we have no right to question them.
Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah taught that people should not say that they do not want to wear a wool-linen mixture (, ''shatnez'', prohibited by and ), eat pork (prohibited by and ), or be intimate with forbidden partners (prohibited by and ), but rather should say that they would love to, but God has decreed that they not do so. For in , God says, "I have separated you from the nations to be mine." So one should separate from transgression and accept the rule of Heaven.
The Gemara cited for the proposition that, except for a very few circumstances, a person need not obey God's commandments if doing so would cause the person to die. Interpreting what constitutes profanation of God's Name within the meaning of , Rabbi Johanan said in the name of Rabbi Simeon ben Jehozadak that by a majority vote, it was resolved in the attic of the house of Nitzah in Lydda
Lod ( he, לוד, or fully vocalized ; ar, اللد, al-Lidd or ), also known as Lydda ( grc, Λύδδα), is a city southeast of Tel Aviv and northwest of Jerusalem in the Central District of Israel. It is situated between the lower Shephe ...
that if a person is directed to transgress a commandment in order to avoid being killed, the person may transgress any commandment of the Torah to stay alive except idolatry, prohibited sexual relations, and murder. With regard to idolatry, the Gemara asked whether one could commit it to save one's life, as it was taught in a Baraita that Rabbi Ishmael said that if a person is directed to engage in idolatry in order to avoid being killed, the person should do so, and stay alive. Rabbi Ishmael taught that we learn this from , "You shall therefore keep my statutes and my judgments, which if a man do, he shall live in them," which means that a person should not die by them. From this, one might think that a person could openly engage in idolatry in order to avoid being killed, but this is not so, as teaches, "Neither shall you profane My holy Name; but I will be hallowed." When Rav Dimi came from the Land of Israel to Babylonia, he taught that the rule that one may violate any commandment except idolatry, prohibited sexual relations, and murder to stay alive applied only when there is no royal decree forbidding the practice of Judaism. But Rav Dimi taught that if there is such a decree, one must incur martyrdom rather than transgress even a minor precept. When Ravin came, he said in Rabbi Johanan's name that even absent such a decree, one was allowed to violate a commandment to stay alive only in private; but in public one needed to be martyred rather than violate even a minor precept. Rava bar Rav Isaac said in Rav's name that in this context one should choose martyrdom rather than violate a commandment even to change a shoe strap. Rabbi Jacob said in Rabbi Johanan's name that the minimum number of people for an act to be considered public is ten. And the Gemara taught that ten Jews are required for the event to be public, for says, "I will be hallowed ''among the children of Israel''."[Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 74a–b]
in, e.g., ''Talmud Bavli'', elucidated by Michoel Weiner and Asher Dicker, edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr and Chaim Malinowitz (Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994), volume 48, page 74a3–b1; see also Tosefta Shabbat 15:17, in, e.g., Jacob Neusner, translator, ''Tosefta'', volume 1.
Rabbi Levi taught that the punishment for false weights or measures (discussed at ) was more severe than that for having intimate relations with forbidden relatives (discussed at ). For in discussing the case of forbidden relatives, uses the Hebrew word , ''eil'', for the word "these," whereas in the case of false weights or measures, uses the Hebrew word , ''eileh'', for the word "these" (and the additional , ''eh'' at the end of the word implies additional punishment.) The Gemara taught that one can derive that , ''eil'', implies rigorous punishment from , which says, "And the mighty (, ''eilei'') of the land he took away." The Gemara explained that the punishments for giving false measures are greater than those for having relations with forbidden relatives because for forbidden relatives, repentance is possible (as long as there have not been children), but with false measure, repentance is impossible (as one cannot remedy the sin of robbery by mere repentance; the return of the things robbed must precede it, and in the case of false measures, it is practically impossible to find out all the members of the public who have been defrauded).
The Gemara interpreted to prohibit a man from lying with his father's wife, whether or not she was his mother, and whether or not the father was still alive.
The Mishnah taught that , in prohibiting "a woman and her daughter," prohibited a man’s daughter, his daughter's daughter, his son's daughter, his wife's daughter, her daughter's daughter, his mother-in-law, the mother of his mother-in-law, and the mother of his father-in-law.
Rav Awira taught (sometimes in the name of Rabbi Ammi
Rabbi Ammi, Aimi, Immi (Hebrew: רבי אמי) is the name of several Jewish Talmudists, known as amoraim, who lived in the Land of Israel and Babylonia. In the Babylonian Talmud the first form only is used; in the Jerusalem Talmud all three forms ...
, sometimes in the name of Rabbi Assi
Assi II (Assa, Issi, Jesa, Josah, Jose, he, רבי אסי) was a Jewish Talmudist of the 3rd and 4th centuries (third generation of amoraim) who lived in the Land of Israel. He is known by the name of Yessa in the Jerusalem Talmud.
He should n ...
) that the words "And the child grew, and was weaned (, ''va-yigamal''), and Abraham made a great feast on the day that Isaac was weaned" in teach that God will make a great feast for the righteous on the day that God manifests (''yigmol'') God's love to Isaac's descendants. After they have eaten and drunk, they will ask Abraham to recite the Grace after meals (''Birkat Hamazon
Birkat Hamazon ( he, בִּרְכַּת הַמָּזוׂן, The Blessing of the Food), known in English as the Grace After Meals ( yi, ; translit. ''bentschen'' or "to bless", Yinglish: Bentsching), is a set of Hebrew blessings that Jewish l ...
''), but Abraham will answer that he cannot say Grace, because he fathered Ishmael. Then they will ask Isaac to say Grace, but Isaac will answer that he cannot say Grace, because he fathered Esau
Esau ''Ēsaû''; la, Hesau, Esau; ar, عِيسَوْ ''‘Īsaw''; meaning "hairy"Easton, M. ''Illustrated Bible Dictionary'', (, , 2006, p. 236 or "rough".Mandel, D. ''The Ultimate Who's Who in the Bible'', (.), 2007, p. 175 is the elder son o ...
. Then they will ask Jacob
Jacob (; ; ar, يَعْقُوب, Yaʿqūb; gr, Ἰακώβ, Iakṓb), later given the name Israel, is regarded as a patriarch of the Israelites and is an important figure in Abrahamic religions, such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. J ...
, but Jacob will answer that he cannot, because he married two sisters during both their lifetimes, which was destined to forbid. Then they will ask Moses, but Moses will answer that he cannot, because God did not allow him to enter the Land of Israel either in life or in death. Then they will ask Joshua
Joshua () or Yehoshua ( ''Yəhōšuaʿ'', Tiberian: ''Yŏhōšuaʿ,'' lit. 'Yahweh is salvation') ''Yēšūaʿ''; syr, ܝܫܘܥ ܒܪ ܢܘܢ ''Yəšūʿ bar Nōn''; el, Ἰησοῦς, ar , يُوشَعُ ٱبْنُ نُونٍ '' Yūšaʿ ...
, but Joshua will answer that he cannot, because he was not privileged to have a son, for reports, "Nun
A nun is a woman who vows to dedicate her life to religious service, typically living under vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience in the enclosure of a monastery or convent.''The Oxford English Dictionary'', vol. X, page 599. The term is o ...
was his son, Joshua was his son," without listing further descendants. Then they will ask David, and he will say Grace, and find it fitting for him to do so, because records David saying, "I will lift up the cup of salvation, and call upon the name of the Lord."
A Baraita was taught in the Academy of Eliyahu: A certain scholar diligently studied Bible and Mishnah, and greatly served scholars, but nonetheless died young. His wife carried his tefillin
Tefillin (; Modern Hebrew language, Israeli Hebrew: / ; Ashkenazim, Ashkenazic pronunciation: ), or phylacteries, are a set of small black leather boxes with leather straps containing scrolls of parchment inscribed with verses from the Torah. Te ...
to the synagogue
A synagogue, ', 'house of assembly', or ', "house of prayer"; Yiddish: ''shul'', Ladino: or ' (from synagogue); or ', "community". sometimes referred to as shul, and interchangeably used with the word temple, is a Jewish house of worshi ...
s and schoolhouses and asked if says, "for that is your life, and the length of your days," why her husband nonetheless died young. No one could answer her. On one occasion, Eliyahu asked her how he was to her during her days of white garments — the seven days after her menstrual period — and she reported that they ate, drank, and slept together without clothing. Eliyahu explained that God must have slain him because he did not sufficiently respect the separation that requires.
Mishnah Sanhedrin 7:7
an
Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 64a–b
interpreted the laws prohibiting passing one's child through the fire to Molech in and , and .
Rabbi Judah ben Pazzi deduced from the juxtaposition of the sexual prohibitions of and the exhortation to holiness in that those who fence themselves against sexual immorality are called holy, and Rabbi Joshua ben Levi taught that wherever one finds a fence against sexual immorality, one will also find sanctity.
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these medieval
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the Post-classical, post-classical period of World history (field), global history. It began with t ...
Jewish sources:
Leviticus chapter 16
Maimonides
Musa ibn Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (); la, Moses Maimonides and also referred to by the acronym Rambam ( he, רמב״ם), was a Sephardic Jewish philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah ...
noted that the scapegoat that was sent into the wilderness in served as an atonement for all serious transgressions more than any other sin-offering of the congregation. Maimonides explained that as it thus seemed to carry off all sins, the scapegoat was not accepted as an ordinary sacrifice to be slaughtered, burned, or even brought near the Sanctuary. Rather, it was removed as far as possible from the community. Maimonides wrote that there is no doubt that sins cannot actually be carried like a burden, and taken off the shoulder of one being to be laid on that of another being. But the ceremonies of the scapegoat were symbolic, and serve to impress upon people the need to repent, as if to say, we have freed ourselves of our previous deeds, have cast them behind us, and removed them as far as possible.
Maimonides taught that the object of the Fast of Atonement is the sense of repentance that it creates. Maimonides noted that it was on Yom Kippur that Moses came down from Mount Sinai with the second tablets and announced to the Israelites God’s pardon of their sin with the Golden Calf. God therefore appointed Yom Kippur forever as a day devoted to repentance and the true worship of God. For this reason, the law interdicts all material enjoyment, trouble and care for the body, and work, so that people might spend the day confessing their sins and abandoning them.
Leviticus chapter 17
Reading the prohibition of eating blood in , Maimonides reported that the Sabians
The Sabians, sometimes also spelled Sabaeans or Sabeans, are a mysterious religious group mentioned three times in the Quran (as , in later sources ), where it is implied that they belonged to the 'People of the Book' (). Their original ident ...
consumed blood, because they thought it was the food of spirits. Maimonides reported that the Sabians and other non-Jews hoped that by eating blood, they would gain the company and goodwill of the spirits, who might then tell them about the future. Maimonides explained that sought to cure humanity of such afflictions. And Maimonides similarly explained that required that whenever Israelites killed a beast or bird that could be eaten, its blood had to be covered with earth, so that people would not assemble around the blood for the purpose of eating in the presence of spirits.
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:
Leviticus chapter 16
Professor Jacob Milgrom
Jacob Milgrom (February 1, 1923 – June 5, 2010) was a prominent American Jewish Bible scholar and Conservative rabbi. Milgrom's major contribution to biblical research was in the field of cult and worship. Although he accepted the documentary ...
, formerly of the University of California, Berkeley
The University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley, Berkeley, Cal, or California) is a public land-grant research university in Berkeley, California. Established in 1868 as the University of California, it is the state's first land-grant u ...
, taught that the evidence of the ethical impulse in the sacrificial system attained its zenith in Yom Kippur. Milgrom wrote that what originally was only a rite to purge the sanctuary was expanded to include a rite to purge the people. To begin with, Milgrom taught, the pagan notion of demonic impurity was eviscerated by insisting that the accumulated pollution of the sanctuary was caused by human sin. Then, Milgrom taught, "a more radical alteration" was introduced with the scapegoat, which initially eliminated the sanctuary's impurities, but then became the vehicle for purging their source — the human heart — provided that the people purged themselves through rites of penitence. Thus Milgrom taught that what was originally a purgation rite of the Temple was broadened and transformed into an annual day for the collective catharsis of Israel whereby God would continue to reside with Israel because God's Temple and people had once again been purified.
Professor James Kugel
James L. Kugel (Hebrew: Yaakov Kaduri, יעקב כדורי; born August 22, 1945) is Professor Emeritus in the Bible Department at Bar Ilan University in Israel and the Harry M. Starr Professor Emeritus of Classical and Modern Hebrew Literature at ...
of Bar Ilan University
Bar-Ilan University (BIU, he, אוניברסיטת בר-אילן, ''Universitat Bar-Ilan'') is a public research university in the Tel Aviv District city of Ramat Gan, Israel. Established in 1955, Bar Ilan is Israel's second-largest academic i ...
reported that according to one theory, the Priestly source
The Priestly source (or simply P) is perhaps the most widely recognized of the sources underlying the Torah. It is both stylistically and theologically distinct from other material in the Torah, and includes a set of claims that are contradicted b ...
(often abbreviated P) invented Nadab and Abihu
In the biblical books Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers, Nadab () and Abihu () were the two oldest sons of Aaron. According to Leviticus 10, they offered a sacrifice with "foreign fire" before the , disobeying his instructions, and were immediate ...
, giving them the names of the discredited King Jeroboam
Jeroboam I (; Hebrew: ''Yārŏḇə‘ām''; el, Ἱεροβοάμ, Hieroboám) was the first king of the northern Kingdom of Israel. The Hebrew Bible describes the reign of Jeroboam to have commenced following a revolt of the ten northern ...
’s sons, so that they could die in the newly-inaugurated sanctuary (as noted in ) and thereby defile it through corpse contamination, so that God could then instruct Aaron in about how to purify the sanctuary through Yom Kippur. This theory posited that the Israelites had originally used Yom Kippur’s purification procedure any time it was needed during the year, and thus it made sense to the narrative to have the sanctuary contaminated (in ) and then immediately purged (in ), but eventually, when the Israelites made sanctuary purgation an annual rite, the Priestly source inserted to list other potential sources of impurity that might require the sanctuary to be purged.
Milgrom noted that sets forth some of the few laws (along with and ) reserved for the Priests alone, while most of Leviticus is addressed to all the Israelite people.
Leviticus chapter 17
In 1877, Professor August Klostermann of the University of Kiel
Kiel University, officially the Christian-Albrecht University of Kiel, (german: Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, abbreviated CAU, known informally as Christiana Albertina) is a university in the city of Kiel, Germany. It was founded in ...
observed the singularity of as a collection of laws and designated it the "Holiness Code
The Holiness code is used in biblical criticism to refer to Leviticus chapters 17–26, and sometimes passages in other books of the Pentateuch, especially Numbers and Exodus. It is so called due to its highly repeated use of the word ''holy'' ...
."
Noting that
21
permits nonsacrificial slaughter, Milgrom argued that Deuteronomy thus overturned the Priestly law of that all meat for human consumption had to have been offered on the altar. Milgrom cited this as support for why Leviticus must be older than Deuteronomy.
Kugel reported that the Israeli
Israeli may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to the State of Israel
* Israelis, citizens or permanent residents of the State of Israel
* Modern Hebrew, a language
* ''Israeli'' (newspaper), published from 2006 to 2008
* Guni Israeli ...
archaeologist
Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscap ...
Israel Finkelstein
Israel Finkelstein ( he, ישראל פינקלשטיין, born March 29, 1949) is an Israeli archaeologist, professor emeritus at Tel Aviv University and the head of the School of Archaeology and Maritime Cultures at the University of Haifa. Fin ...
found no pig bones in hilltop sites starting in the Iron I period (roughly 1200–1000 BCE) and continuing through Iron II, while before that, in Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second pri ...
sites, pig bones abounded. Kugel deduced from Finkelstein’s data that the new hilltop residents were fundamentally different from both their predecessors in the highlands and the city Canaanites — either because they were a different ethnic group, or because they had adopted a different way of life, for ideological or other reasons. Kugel inferred from Finkelstein’s findings that these highlanders shared some ideology (if only a food taboo), like modern-day Jews and Muslim
Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
s.
Leviticus chapter 18
Professor Shaye Cohen of Harvard University
Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1636 as Harvard College and named for its first benefactor, the Puritan clergyman John Harvard, it is the oldest institution of higher le ...
noted that the only element in common between the “ritual” or physical impurities of and the “dangerous” or sinful impurities of is intercourse with a menstruant.
Leading modern authorities in different Jewish religious movements
Jewish religious movements, sometimes called "religious denomination, denominations", include different groups within Judaism which have developed among Jews from ancient times. Today, the most prominent divisions are between traditionalist Ortho ...
differ in their interpretation of the law on homosexuality in and . From Orthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism is the collective term for the traditionalist and theologically conservative branches of contemporary Judaism. Theologically, it is chiefly defined by regarding the Torah, both Written and Oral, as revealed by God to Moses on M ...
, in 2010, four leaders of the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary
Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary (RIETS ) is the rabbinical seminary of Yeshiva University (YU). It is located along Amsterdam Avenue in the Washington Heights neighborhood of Manhattan, New York City.
Named after Yitzchak Elchanan S ...
of Yeshiva University
Yeshiva University is a private Orthodox Jewish university with four campuses in New York City.["About YU]
on the Yeshiva Universit ...
posted a statement saying that the Torah absolutely prohibits homosexual behavior, and with respect to homosexuality, the study of Torah will place observant Jews at odds with political correctness and the temper of the times, but they must be honest with themselves and with God, regardless of the consequences. In 2006, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards
The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards is the central authority on halakha (Jewish law and tradition) within Conservative Judaism; it is one of the most active and widely known committees on the Conservative movement's Rabbinical Assembly. With ...
of Conservative Judaism
Conservative Judaism, known as Masorti Judaism outside North America, is a Jewish religious movement which regards the authority of ''halakha'' (Jewish law) and traditions as coming primarily from its people and community through the generatio ...
approved by a 13-to-12 vote a responsum
''Responsa'' (plural of Latin , 'answer') comprise a body of written decisions and rulings given by legal scholars in response to questions addressed to them. In the modern era, the term is used to describe decisions and rulings made by scholars i ...
that held that while the explicit biblical ban on anal sex between men remains in effect, for homosexuals who are incapable of maintaining a heterosexual relationship, the rabbinic prohibitions that have been associated with other gay and lesbian intimate acts are superseded based upon the Talmudic principle of the obligation to preserve the human dignity of all people, in effect normalizing the status of gay and lesbian Jews in the Jewish community, while explicitly not ruling on the question of gay marriage. In 1977, the Central Conference of American Rabbis
The Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR), founded in 1889 by Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise, is the principal organization of Reform rabbis in the United States and Canada. The CCAR is the largest and oldest rabbinical organization in the world. I ...
of Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism, also known as Liberal Judaism or Progressive Judaism, is a major Jewish denomination that emphasizes the evolving nature of Judaism, the superiority of its ethical aspects to its ceremonial ones, and belief in a continuous searc ...
adopted a resolution encouraging legislation to decriminalize homosexual acts between consenting adults and prohibit discrimination against them. And in 2013, the Central Conference of American Rabbis Responsa Committee adopted a responsum holding that Reform rabbis officiate with the full support of the CCAR at the marriage ceremonies of Jews of the same sex and Reform rabbis may consider these same-sex marriages to be ''kiddushin'', utilizing in the marriage ceremony the Jewish forms and rites that are most appropriate to the partners involved.
Commandments
According to Sefer ha-Chinuch
''Sefer ha-Chinuch'' ( he, ספר החינוך, "Book of Education") is a Jewish rabbinic text which systematically discusses the 613 commandments of the Torah. It was published anonymously in 13th-century Spain. History
The work's enumeration o ...
, there are 2 positive and 26 negative commandments
Commandment may refer to:
* The Ten Commandments
* One of the 613 mitzvot of Judaism
* The Great Commandment
* The New Commandment
The New Commandment is a term used in Christianity to describe Jesus's commandment to "love one another" which, ac ...
in the parashah:
*A Kohen must not enter the Temple in Jerusalem
The Temple in Jerusalem, or alternatively the Holy Temple (; , ), refers to the two now-destroyed religious structures that served as the central places of worship for Israelites and Jews on the modern-day Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusa ...
indiscriminately.
*To follow the procedure of Yom Kippur
*Not to slaughter sacrifices outside the courtyard
*To cover the blood of a slaughtered beast or fowl with earth
*Not to make pleasurable sexual contact with any forbidden woman
*Not to have homosexual sexual relations with one's father[.]
*Not to have sexual relations with one's mother
*Not to have sexual relations with one's father's wife
*Not to have sexual relations with one's sister
*Not to have sexual relations with one's son's daughter[.]
*Not to have sexual relations with one's daughter's daughter[
*Not to have sexual relations with one's daughter][
*Not to have sexual relations with one's father's wife's daughter
*Not to have sexual relations with one's father's sister
*Not to have sexual relations with one's mother's sister
*Not to have homosexual sexual relations with one's father's brother][.]
*Not to have sexual relations with one's father's brother's wife[
*Not to have sexual relations with one's son's wife
*Not to have sexual relations with one's brother's wife
*Not to have sexual relations with a woman and her daughter][.]
*Not to have sexual relations with a woman and her son's daughter[
*Not to have sexual relations with a woman and her daughter's daughter][
*Not to have sexual relations with one's wife's sister while both are alive
*Not to have sexual relations with a menstrually impure woman
*Not to pass one's children through the fire to Molech]
*Not to have male homosexual sexual relations
*A man must not have sexual relations with a beast.[
*A woman must not have sexual relations with a beast.][
]
The Weekly Maqam
In the Weekly Maqam
In Mizrahi and Sephardic Middle Eastern Jewish prayer services, each Shabbat the congregation conducts services using a different maqam. A ''maqam'' (), which in Arabic literally means 'place', is a standard melody type and set of related tunes. T ...
, Sephardi Jews
Sephardic (or Sephardi) Jews (, ; lad, Djudíos Sefardíes), also ''Sepharadim'' , Modern Hebrew: ''Sfaradim'', Tiberian: Səp̄āraddîm, also , ''Ye'hude Sepharad'', lit. "The Jews of Spain", es, Judíos sefardíes (or ), pt, Judeus sefar ...
each week base the songs of the services on the content of that week's parashah. For parashah Acharei, Sephardi Jews apply Maqam Hijaz, the maqam that expresses mourning and sadness, because the parashah alludes to the deaths of Nadab and Abihu, the first two sons of Aaron.
Haftarah
The haftarah
The ''haftara'' or (in Ashkenazic pronunciation) ''haftorah'' (alt. ''haftarah, haphtara'', he, הפטרה) "parting," "taking leave", (plural form: ''haftarot'' or ''haftoros'') is a series of selections from the books of ''Nevi'im'' ("Prop ...
for the parashah is:
*for Ashkenazi Jews
Ashkenazi Jews ( ; he, יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכְּנַז, translit=Yehudei Ashkenaz, ; yi, אַשכּנזישע ייִדן, Ashkenazishe Yidn), also known as Ashkenazic Jews or ''Ashkenazim'',, Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation: , singu ...
:
*for Sephardi Jews: [
]
Connection to the parashah
Both the parashah and the haftarah address prohibited sexual practices.
On Shabbat Machar Chodesh
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat Machar Chodesh (when Shabbat falls the day before Rosh Chodesh — as it does in 2022), the haftarah is .[
]
On Shabbat HaGadol
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat HaGadol (the special Sabbath immediately before Passover — as it did in 2014), the haftarah is .
Connection to the special Sabbath
Shabbat HaGadol means "the Great Sabbath," and the haftarah for the special Sabbath refers to a great day that God is preparing.
Parashah Acharei Mot-Kedoshim
When parashah Acharei Mot is combined with parashah Kedoshim (as it is in 2021, 2023, 2025, 2026, and 2028), the haftarah is the haftarah for parashah Kedoshim:
*for Ashkenazi Jews:
*for Sephardi Jews:
See also
* Azazel in rabbinic literature
* Conservative Judaism and sexual orientation
*Homosexuality and Judaism
The subject of homosexuality and Judaism dates back to the Torah. The book of Vayikra (Leviticus) is traditionally regarded as classifying sexual intercourse between males as a ''to'eivah'' (something abhorred or detested) that can be subject to ...
*Leviticus 18
Leviticus 18 (the eighteenth chapter of the Book of Leviticus) deals with a number of sexual activities considered abominable, including incest, bestiality, and homosexuality (or sodomy). The chapter also condemns Moloch worship. It is part of ...
*Same-sex marriage and Judaism Same-sex marriage in Judaism has been a subject of debate within Jewish denominations. The traditional view among Jews is to regard same-sex relationships as categorically forbidden by the Torah. This remains the current view of Orthodox Judaism.
A ...
Notes
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:
Ancient
*"Temple Program for the New Year's Festival at Babylon." Babylonia
Babylonia (; Akkadian: , ''māt Akkadī'') was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Syria). It emerged as an Amorite-ruled state c. ...
. In ''Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament''. Edited by James B. Pritchard
James Bennett Pritchard (October 4, 1909 – January 1, 1997) was an American archeologist whose work explicated the interrelationships of the religions of ancient Palestine, Canaan, Egypt, Assyria, and Babylon. Pritchard was honored with the Go ...
, pages 331–34. Princeton, New Jersey
Princeton is a municipality with a borough form of government in Mercer County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. It was established on January 1, 2013, through the consolidation of the Borough of Princeton and Princeton Township, both of whi ...
: Princeton University Press
Princeton University Press is an independent publisher with close connections to Princeton University. Its mission is to disseminate scholarship within academia and society at large.
The press was founded by Whitney Darrow, with the financial su ...
, 1969.
Biblical
*
49–53
(riddance ritual); (Molech); (Yom Kippur).
* (passing children through the fire).
*1 Kings
The Book of Kings (, '' Sēfer Məlāḵīm'') is a book in the Hebrew Bible, found as two books (1–2 Kings) in the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. It concludes the Deuteronomistic history, a history of Israel also including the books ...
33
(Molech).
* (son pass through fire); (children pass through fire); (son pass through fire); (Molech).
* (Molech or king).
* (child sacrifice); (Molech); (Molech or Malcam).
* (sacrificing children); (the just man avoids contact with the menstruating woman); (sacrifice of sons).
* (Molech or king).
* (Molech).
* (God's imputing iniquity to a person); (cleansing from sin); (holiness in God's house); (God's forgiveness); (sacrifice to demons).
* (children pass through fire).
Early nonrabbinic
*Philo
Philo of Alexandria (; grc, Φίλων, Phílōn; he, יְדִידְיָה, Yəḏīḏyāh (Jedediah); ), also called Philo Judaeus, was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt.
Philo's deplo ...
''Allegorical Interpretation''
2:14:52, 15:56
22:80
20:70
8:32
16:84
16:85–87
28:159; 34:193
2:28:189, 34:231
4:23:122. Alexandria
Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandria ...
, Egypt, early 1st Century CE. In, e.g., ''The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition''. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge
Charles Duke Yonge (30 November 1812 – 30 November 1891) was an English historian, classicist and cricketer. He wrote numerous works of modern history, and translated several classical works. His younger brother was George Edward Yonge.
Biogra ...
, pages 43, 121, 138, 154, 283, 311, 335, 338, 401, 404, 628. Peabody, Massachusetts
Peabody () is a city in Essex County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 54,481 at the time of the 2020 United States Census. Peabody is located in the North Shore region of Massachusetts, and is known for its rich industrial histo ...
: Hendrickson Publisher
Hendrickson Publishers is an American academic and reference book house founded in 1980. It is based in Peabody, Massachusetts.
History
The company was established on 12 May 1980 and incorporated in Massachusetts. Apart from working as book publ ...
s, 1993.
*Hebrews
The terms ''Hebrews'' (Hebrew: / , Modern: ' / ', Tiberian: ' / '; ISO 259-3: ' / ') and ''Hebrew people'' are mostly considered synonymous with the Semitic-speaking Israelites, especially in the pre-monarchic period when they were still no ...
. Circa 63–100. (Yom Kippur).
*Josephus
Flavius Josephus (; grc-gre, Ἰώσηπος, ; 37 – 100) was a first-century Romano-Jewish historian and military leader, best known for ''The Jewish War'', who was born in Jerusalem—then part of Roman Judea—to a father of priestly d ...
, ''Antiquities of the Jews
''Antiquities of the Jews'' ( la, Antiquitates Iudaicae; el, Ἰουδαϊκὴ ἀρχαιολογία, ''Ioudaikē archaiologia'') is a 20-volume historiographical work, written in Greek, by historian Flavius Josephus in the 13th year of the re ...
'
3:10:3
Circa 93–94. In, e.g., ''The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition''. Translated by William Whiston
William Whiston (9 December 166722 August 1752) was an English theologian, historian, natural philosopher, and mathematician, a leading figure in the popularisation of the ideas of Isaac Newton. He is now probably best known for helping to inst ...
, page 95. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
*Acts
The Acts of the Apostles ( grc-koi, Πράξεις Ἀποστόλων, ''Práxeis Apostólōn''; la, Actūs Apostolōrum) is the fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian Church and the spread of its message ...
(Molech).
Classical rabbinic
*Mishnah
The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Torah ...
Bikkurim 2:9
Shabbat 6:10
Shekalim 4:2
Yoma 1:1–8:9; Beitzah 1:1–5:7; Rosh Hashanah 1:2
Taanit 4:8
Megillah 3:5
4:9
Chagigah 2:1
Yevamot 2:3
Sotah 7:7
Sanhedrin 7:4
7
9:1
Makkot 3:15
Shevuot 1:4–7
Zevachim 12:5
14:1–2
9
Menachot 9:7
Keritot 1:1
2:4
5:1
Parah 1:4
8:3. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE Reprinted in, e.g., ''The Mishnah: A New Translation''. Translated by Jacob Neusner
Jacob Neusner (July 28, 1932 – October 8, 2016) was an American academic scholar of Judaism. He was named as one of the most published authors in history, having written or edited more than 900 books.
Life and career
Neusner was born in Hartfor ...
, pages 171, 256, 265–79, 291–300, 321, 323, 330, 339, 459, 597, 602, 619, 621–22, 726, 729, 731, 752, 836, 839, 845–46, 1014, 1025. New Haven, Connecticut
New Haven is a city in the U.S. state of Connecticut. It is located on New Haven Harbor on the northern shore of Long Island Sound in New Haven County, Connecticut and is part of the New York City metropolitan area. With a population of 134,02 ...
: Yale University Press
Yale University Press is the university press of Yale University. It was founded in 1908 by George Parmly Day, and became an official department of Yale University in 1961, but it remains financially and operationally autonomous.
, Yale Universi ...
, 1988.
*Sifra
Sifra (Aramaic: סִפְרָא) is the Halakhic midrash to the Book of Leviticus. It is frequently quoted in the Talmud, and the study of it followed that of the Mishnah. Like Leviticus itself, the midrash is occasionally called "Torat Kohanim", a ...
174:1–194:3. Land of Israel, 4th Century. In, e.g., ''Sifra: An Analytical Translation''. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 3, pages 1–84. Atlanta
Atlanta ( ) is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Georgia. It is the seat of Fulton County, the most populous county in Georgia, but its territory falls in both Fulton and DeKalb counties. With a population of 498,715 ...
: Scholars Press, 1988.
*Jerusalem Talmud
The Jerusalem Talmud ( he, תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשַׁלְמִי, translit=Talmud Yerushalmi, often for short), also known as the Palestinian Talmud or Talmud of the Land of Israel, is a collection of rabbinic notes on the second-century ...
: Kilayim 76a; Maaser Sheni 12a; Shabbat 5b, 10b, 55b–56a, 69b, 94a; Pesachim 32a, 58a; Shekalim 24b; Yoma 1a–57a; Sukkah 3b, 27a; Beitzah 1a–49b; Taanit 27a, 28b; Megillah 17b, 39b; Yevamot 1b–2a, 10b–11a, 20a, 50a, 61a–62a; Ketubot 19b, 38b; Nedarim 9b; Nazir 27a; Sotah 23b; Kiddushin 1b, 11a; Sanhedrin 20b, 22b, 39a, 40a–b, 42a–b, 43b–44b, 46a, 47a, 48a, 49a, 55b–57a, 61b; Makkot 11a; Shevuot 5a–b, 6b, 8a, 9a, 10a, 16b, 17b, 21a, 23b; Avodah Zarah 10a, 21a; Horayot 6a, 7b, 8b, 15a, 16b. Tiberias
Tiberias ( ; he, טְבֶרְיָה, ; ar, طبريا, Ṭabariyyā) is an Israeli city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. A major Jewish center during Late Antiquity, it has been considered since the 16th century one of Judaism's Fo ...
, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., ''Talmud Yerushalmi''. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 5, 10, 13–15, 18–23, 25–26, 29–31, 33, 35–36, 40, 44–49. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2008–2020. And in, e.g., ''The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary''. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.
*Genesis Rabbah
Genesis Rabbah (Hebrew: , ''B'reshith Rabba'') is a religious text from Judaism's classical period, probably written between 300 and 500 CE with some later additions. It is a midrash comprising a collection of ancient rabbinical homiletical inter ...
br>2:3
3:8
17:2
31:6
65:14–15; 98:1. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., ''Midrash Rabbah: Genesis''. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, pages 16–17, 24, 132–33, 241; volume 2, pages 590–91, 945. London
London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a majo ...
: Soncino Press
Soncino Press is a Jewish publishing company based in the United Kingdom that has published a variety of books of Jewish interest, most notably English translations and commentaries to the Talmud and Hebrew Bible. The Soncino Hebrew Bible and Tal ...
, 1939.
* Mekhilta of Rabbi Simeon 9:5; 37:2; 47:1; 48:2; 54:1; 60:4; 69:3; 74:5. Land of Israel, 5th Century. In, e.g., ''Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai''. Translated by W. David Nelson, pages 29, 163, 205, 215, 243, 275, 317, 348. Philadelphia
Philadelphia, often called Philly, is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, the sixth-largest city in the U.S., the second-largest city in both the Northeast megalopolis and Mid-Atlantic regions after New York City. Sinc ...
: Jewish Publication Society
The Jewish Publication Society (JPS), originally known as the Jewish Publication Society of America, is the oldest nonprofit, nondenominational publisher of Jewish works in English. Founded in Philadelphia in 1888, by reform Rabbi Joseph Krauskop ...
, 2006.
*Leviticus Rabbah
Leviticus Rabbah, Vayikrah Rabbah, or Wayiqra Rabbah is a homiletic midrash to the Biblical book of Leviticus (''Vayikrah'' in Hebrew). It is referred to by Nathan ben Jehiel (c. 1035–1106) in his ''Arukh'' as well as by Rashi (1040–1105) ...
3:3; 5:6; 13:3; 17:3; 20:1–23:13; 24:6; 27:9; 30:7. Land of Israel, 5th Century. In, e.g., ''Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus''. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 4, pages 37, 71, 166–68, 216, 250–303, 308, 354, 389–90. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
*Babylonian Talmud
The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law (''halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the cente ...
Berakhot 6bShabbat 13a–b
22a
67a
86a
Eruvin 63a
Pesachim 22a
26a
47b
65a
75b
77a
79a
85b
Yoma 2a–88a
Sukkah 5a
24a
28a
33a
Beitzah 2a
7a–8a
Rosh Hashanah 26a
Megillah 7b
20b
24a
25a
30b–31a
Moed Katan 9a
15b
28a
Chagigah 9a
10a
11b
16a
23b
Yevamot 2a
3a–b
5b–8b
11a
13a
17b
19a
21a–23a
28b
33b
49a
50a
54b–55b
56b
83b
97a
102b
114a
Ketubot 29a
30a
32b–33a
36a
47b
56a
67b
72a
82b
Sotah 4b
16a
17a
26b
40b–41a
Kiddushin 13b–14a
22b
43a
44b
50b–51a
57b
67b–68a
Bava Kamma 32a
38a
40b–41a
76a
91b
96b
Bava Batra 25a
88b
109b
120a–21a
Sanhedrin 12b
18a
19b
28b
33b
34b
42b
43b
49b
51a
52b
53b–55a
57b
58b–59a
60b–61a
74a
75b–76a
81a
82a
Makkot 5b
13a–14b
18a
23a–24a
Shevuot 2a–b
7b–8b
12a–14a
17b–18b
Zevachim 6a
19b
26a–b
35a
40a
46a
52a
57a
69a–70a
78a
81a
83a
84b
98a
104a
105a–09b
112a–b
113b
116b
118a
119b
Menachot 8b
12b
16a
22a
26a
27a–b
83a
91b–92a
93b
Chullin 10b–11a
16b–17a
20b
22a
24a
27b
29b
31a
41b
72a
78a
79b
83b–84a
85a
86b–87a
88a
98b
117a
120a
131b
138a–39a
Bekhorot 39b
56b
Temurah 2b
5b
6b
12a
13a
14a
29b
Keritot 2a–3b
4b
5a
6a–b
9a
10b
14a–15a
20b–21a
22a
25b
28a
Meilah 11a–b
13b
Sasanian Empire
The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the History of Iran, last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th cen ...
, 6th Century. In, e.g., ''Talmud Bavli''. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006.
Medieval
*Rashi
Shlomo Yitzchaki ( he, רבי שלמה יצחקי; la, Salomon Isaacides; french: Salomon de Troyes, 22 February 1040 – 13 July 1105), today generally known by the acronym Rashi (see below), was a medieval French rabbi and author of a compre ...
. ''Commentary''
Leviticus 16–18
Troyes
Troyes () is a commune and the capital of the department of Aube in the Grand Est region of north-central France. It is located on the Seine river about south-east of Paris. Troyes is situated within the Champagne wine region and is near to ...
, France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
, late 11th Century. In, e.g., Rashi. ''The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated''. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 3, pages 191–223. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994. .
*Rashbam
Samuel ben Meir (Troyes, c. 1085 – c. 1158), after his death known as "Rashbam", a Hebrew acronym for RAbbi SHmuel Ben Meir, was a leading French Tosafist and grandson of Shlomo Yitzhaki, "Rashi".
Biography
He was born in the vicinity of Troye ...
. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., ''Rashbam's Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation''. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 87–96. Providence, Rhode Island
Providence is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Rhode Island. One of the oldest cities in New England, it was founded in 1636 by Roger Williams, a Reformed Baptist theologian and religious exile from the Massachusetts Bay ...
: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001. .
*Judah Halevi
Judah Halevi (also Yehuda Halevi or ha-Levi; he, יהודה הלוי and Judah ben Shmuel Halevi ; ar, يهوذا اللاوي ''Yahuḏa al-Lāwī''; 1075 – 1141) was a Spanish Jewish physician, poet and philosopher. He was born in Spain, ...
. ''Kuzari
The ''Kuzari'', full title ''Book of Refutation and Proof on Behalf of the Despised Religion'' ( ar, كتاب الحجة والدليل في نصرة الدين الذليل: ''Kitâb al-ḥujja wa'l-dalîl fi naṣr al-dîn al-dhalîl''), also k ...
''. 3:53. Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. ''Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel.'' Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, page 181. New York
New York most commonly refers to:
* New York City, the most populous city in the United States, located in the state of New York
* New York (state), a state in the northeastern United States
New York may also refer to:
Film and television
* '' ...
: Schocken Books
Schocken Books is a book publishing imprint of Penguin Random House that specializes in Jewish literary works. Originally established in 1931 by Salman Schocken as Schocken Verlag in Berlin, the company later moved to Palestine and then the Uni ...
, 1964. .
*Numbers Rabbah
Numbers Rabbah (or Bamidbar Rabbah in Hebrew) is a religious text holy to classical Judaism. It is a midrash comprising a collection of ancient rabbinical homiletic interpretations of the book of Numbers (''Bamidbar'' in Hebrew).
In the first prin ...
br>2:23
5:4
7
7:8
9:10
15
10:8
13:15–16
14:1
12
15:24
16:23
17:5
18:21
19:5
12th century. In, e.g., ''Midrash Rabbah: Numbers''. Translated by Judah J. Slotki, volume 5, pages 59, 147, 151, 196, 256, 269, 375–76; volume 6, pages 536, 564, 622, 671, 691, 705, 739, 755–56. London: Soncino Press, 1939. .
* Abraham ibn Ezra. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Leviticus (Va-yikra)''. Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, volume 3, pages 121–52. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 2004. .
*Maimonides
Musa ibn Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (); la, Moses Maimonides and also referred to by the acronym Rambam ( he, רמב״ם), was a Sephardic Jewish philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah ...
. ''Mishneh Torah
The ''Mishneh Torah'' ( he, מִשְׁנֵה תּוֹרָה, , repetition of the Torah), also known as ''Sefer Yad ha-Hazaka'' ( he, ספר יד החזקה, , book of the strong hand, label=none), is a code of Rabbinic Jewish religious law (''h ...
''
Introduction 25
''Hilchot Teshuvah (The Laws of Repentance)''
Cairo
Cairo ( ; ar, القاهرة, al-Qāhirah, ) is the capital of Egypt and its largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East: The Greater Cairo metro ...
, Egypt, 1170–1180. In, e.g., ''Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Teshuvah: The Laws of Repentance''. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 4, pages 8–15. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1990. .
*Maimonides. ''The Guide for the Perplexed
''The Guide for the Perplexed'' ( ar, دلالة الحائرين, Dalālat al-ḥā'irīn, ; he, מורה נבוכים, Moreh Nevukhim) is a work of Jewish theology by Maimonides. It seeks to reconcile Aristotelianism with Rabbinical Jewish the ...
'', part 3, chapters 37, 41, 46, 47, 48, 49. Cairo, Egypt, 1190. In, e.g., Moses Maimonides. ''The Guide for the Perplexed''. Translated by Michael Friedländer
Michael Friedländer (29 April 1833 – 10 December 1910) was an Orientalist and principal of Jews' College, London. He is best known for his English translation of Maimonides' ''Guide to the Perplexed'', which was the most popular such translat ...
, pages 334, 346, 362–64, 366, 369, 371, 376–77. New York: Dover Publications
Dover Publications, also known as Dover Books, is an American book publisher founded in 1941 by Hayward and Blanche Cirker. It primarily reissues books that are out of print from their original publishers. These are often, but not always, books ...
, 1956. .
*Hezekiah ben Manoah Hezekiah ben Manoah, or Hezekiah bar Manoah, was a French rabbi and Bible commentator of the 13th century. He is generally known by the title of his commentary, Chizkuni ( he, חזקוני).
In memory of his father, who lost his right hand through ...
. ''Hizkuni''. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. ''Chizkuni: Torah Commentary''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 745–61. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013. .
*Nachmanides
Moses ben Nachman ( he, מֹשֶׁה בֶּן־נָחְמָן ''Mōše ben-Nāḥmān'', "Moses son of Nachman"; 1194–1270), commonly known as Nachmanides (; el, Ναχμανίδης ''Nakhmanídēs''), and also referred to by the acronym Ra ...
. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., ''Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah.'' Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 3, pages 210–80. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1974. .
*Zohar
The ''Zohar'' ( he, , ''Zōhar'', lit. "Splendor" or "Radiance") is a foundational work in the literature of Jewish mystical thought known as Kabbalah. It is a group of books including commentary on the mystical aspects of the Torah (the five ...
. Part 3, pages 56a–80a. Spain, late 13th Century.
*Bahya ben Asher
Bahya ben Asher ibn Halawa (, 1255–1340) was a rabbi and scholar of Judaism, best known as a commentator on the Hebrew Bible.
He is one of two scholars now referred to as Rabbeinu Behaye, the other being philosopher Bahya ibn Paquda.
Biogra ...
. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Spain, early 14th century. In, e.g., ''Midrash Rabbeinu Bachya: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Bachya ben Asher''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 5, pages 1674–728. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2003. .
*Jacob ben Asher
Jacob ben Asher (c. 1269 - c. 1343), also known as Ba'al ha-Turim as well as Rabbi Yaakov ben Raash (Rabbeinu Asher), was an influential Medieval rabbinic authority. He is often referred to as the Ba'al ha-Turim ("Master of the Columns"), after ...
(Baal Ha-Turim). ''Rimze Ba'al ha-Turim''. Early 14th century. In, e.g., ''Baal Haturim Chumash: Vayikra/Leviticus''. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, edited, elucidated, and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 3, pages 1163–89. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2000. .
*Jacob ben Asher. ''Perush Al ha-Torah''. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. ''Tur on the Torah''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 877–9. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005. .
*Isaac ben Moses Arama Isaac ben Moses Arama ( 1420 – 1494) was a Spanish rabbi and author. He was at first principal of a rabbinical academy at Zamora (probably his birthplace); then he received a call as rabbi and preacher from the community at Tarragona, and later ...
. ''Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac)''. Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. ''Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah''. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 591–611. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001. .
*Isaac Abravanel
Isaac ben Judah Abarbanel ( he, יצחק בן יהודה אברבנאל; 1437–1508), commonly referred to as Abarbanel (), also spelled Abravanel, Avravanel, or Abrabanel, was a Portuguese Jewish statesman, philosopher, Bible commentator ...
. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Italy, between 1492–1509. In, e.g., ''Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 3: Vayikra/Leviticus''. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 136–63. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015. . And excerpted in, e.g., ''The Abarbanel on the Yom Kippur Service in the Beis Hamikdash''. Translated by Elimelech Lepon. Southfield, Michigan
Southfield is a city in Oakland County, Michigan, Oakland County in the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2010 United States Census, 2010 census, the city had a population of 76,618.
As a northern suburb of Detroit, Southfield shares part of its ...
: Targum Press
Menucha Publishers is an Orthodox Jewish English-language publishing company based in Brooklyn, New York. Originally founded as a distributor for Targum Press, in 2011 after Targum's shutdown, Menucha established itself as an independent publish ...
, 1990. .
Modern
*Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno
Ovadia ben Jacob Sforno (Obadja Sforno, Hebrew: עובדיה ספורנו) was an Italian rabbi, Biblical commentator, philosopher and physician. A member of the Sforno family, he was born in Cesena about 1475 and died in Bologna in 1550.
Bio ...
. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., ''Sforno: Commentary on the Torah''. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 562–77. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997. .
*Moshe Alshich
Moshe Alshich he, משה אלשיך, also spelled Alshech, (1508–1593), known as the ''Alshich Hakadosh (the Holy)'', was a prominent rabbi, preacher, and Bible, biblical commentator in the latter part of the sixteenth century.
The Alshich wa ...
. ''Commentary on the Torah''. Safed
Safed (known in Hebrew language, Hebrew as Tzfat; Sephardi Hebrew, Sephardic Hebrew & Modern Hebrew: צְפַת ''Tsfat'', Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation, Ashkenazi Hebrew: ''Tzfas'', Biblical Hebrew: ''Ṣǝp̄aṯ''; ar, صفد, ''Ṣafad''), i ...
, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. ''Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 679–98. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000. .
*Menasseh ben Israel
Manoel Dias Soeiro (1604 – 20 November 1657), better known by his Hebrew name Menasseh ben Israel (), also known as Menasheh ben Yossef ben Yisrael, also known with the Hebrew acronym, MB"Y or MBI, was a Portuguese rabbi, kabbalist, writ ...
. ''El Conciliador (The Conciliator)''. Amsterdam, 1632. In ''The Conciliator of R. Manasseh Ben Israel: A Reconcilement of the Apparent Contradictions in Holy Scripture: To Which Are Added Explanatory Notes, and Biographical Notices of the Quoted Authorities''. Translated by Elias Hiam Lindo, pages 226–29. London, 1842. Reprinted by, e.g., Nabu Press, 2010. .
*Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes ( ; 5/15 April 1588 – 4/14 December 1679) was an English philosopher, considered to be one of the founders of modern political philosophy. Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book ''Leviathan'', in which he expounds an influent ...
. ''Leviathan
Leviathan (; he, לִוְיָתָן, ) is a sea serpent noted in theology and mythology. It is referenced in several books of the Hebrew Bible, including Psalms, the Book of Job, the Book of Isaiah, the Book of Amos, and, according to some ...
'', 3:40, 41. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson
Crawford Brough Macpherson (1911–1987) was an influential Canadian political scientist who taught political theory at the University of Toronto.
Life
Macpherson was born on 18 November 1911 in Toronto, Ontario. After graduating from the Univ ...
, pages 503–04, 513–14. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982. .
*Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. ''Commentaries on the Torah''. Cracow, Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as ''Chanukat HaTorah''. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. ''Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash''. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 227–29. Southfield, Michigan
Southfield is a city in Oakland County, Michigan, Oakland County in the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2010 United States Census, 2010 census, the city had a population of 76,618.
As a northern suburb of Detroit, Southfield shares part of its ...
: Targum Press
Menucha Publishers is an Orthodox Jewish English-language publishing company based in Brooklyn, New York. Originally founded as a distributor for Targum Press, in 2011 after Targum's shutdown, Menucha established itself as an independent publish ...
/Feldheim Publishers
Feldheim Publishers (or Feldheim) is an American Orthodox Jewish publisher of Torah books and literature. Its extensive catalog of titles includes books on Jewish law, Torah, Talmud, Jewish lifestyle, Shabbat and Jewish holidays, Jewish history, b ...
, 2004. .
*Shabbethai Bass Shabbethai ben Joseph Bass (1641–1718) ( he, שבתי בן יוסף; also known by the family-name Strom), born at Kalisz, was the founder of Jewish bibliography, and author of the ''Siftei Chachamim'' supercommentary on Rashi's commentary on the ...
. ''Sifsei Chachamim''. Amsterdam, 1680. In, e.g., ''Sefer Vayikro: From the Five Books of the Torah: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros'', translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 298–350. Lakewood Township, New Jersey
Lakewood Township is the most populous township in Ocean County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. A rapidly growing community as of the 2020 U.S. census, the township had a total population of 135,158 representing an increase of 41,415 (+45.5% ...
: Metsudah Publications, 2012.
*Chaim ibn Attar
Chaim ibn Attar or Ḥayyim ben Moshe ibn Attar ( ar, حاييم بن موشي بن عطار, he, חיים בן משה בן עטר; b. - 7 July 1743) also known as the Or ha-Ḥayyim after his popular commentary on the Torah, was a Talmudist ...
. ''Ohr ha-Chaim''. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. ''Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah''. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1127–90. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999. .
*Yitzchak Magriso. ''Me'am Lo'ez
''Me'am Lo'ez'' ( he, מעם לועז), initiated by Rabbi Yaakov Culi in 1730, is a widely studied commentary on the Tanakh written in Judaeo-Spanish. It is perhaps the best known publication in that language.
History
''Me'Am Lo'ez'' marked on ...
''. Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
, 1753. In Yitzchak Magriso. ''The Torah Anthology: MeAm Lo'ez''. Translated by Aryeh Kaplan
Aryeh Moshe Eliyahu Kaplan ( he, אריה משה אליהו קפלן; October 23, 1934 – January 28, 1983) was an American Orthodox rabbi, author, and translator, best known for his Living Torah edition of the Torah. He became well known as ...
, volume 11, pages 329–419. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989. .
*Nachman of Breslov
Nachman of Breslov ( he, רַבִּי נַחְמָן מִבְּרֶסְלֶב ''Rabbī'' ''Naḥmān mīBreslev''), also known as Reb Nachman of Bratslav, Reb Nachman Breslover ( yi, רבי נחמן ברעסלאווער ''Rebe Nakhmen Breslover'' ...
. ''Teachings''. Bratslav
Bratslav ( uk, Брацлав; pl, Bracław; yi, בראָצלעוו, ''Brotslev'', today also pronounced Breslev or '' Breslov'' as the name of a Hasidic group, which originated from this town) is an urban-type settlement in Ukraine, located i ...
, Ukraine, before 1811. In ''Rebbe Nachman's Torah: Breslov Insights into the Weekly Torah Reading: Exodus-Leviticus''. Compiled by Chaim Kramer, edited by Y. Hall, pages 346–63. Jerusalem: Breslov Research Institute, 2011. .
*Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). ''Commentary on the Torah.'' Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. ''Torah Commentary''. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 949–62. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012. .
*Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. ''Sefat Emet''. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in ''The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet''. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 179–83, 351–56. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. . Reprinted 2012. .
*Hermann Cohen. ''Religion of Reason: Out of the Sources of Judaism''. Translated with an introduction by Simon Kaplan; introductory essays by Leo Strauss, pages 127, 222, 416. New York: Ungar, 1972. Reprinted Atlanta
Atlanta ( ) is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Georgia. It is the seat of Fulton County, the most populous county in Georgia, but its territory falls in both Fulton and DeKalb counties. With a population of 498,715 ...
: Scholars Press, 1995. . Originally published as ''Religion der Vernunft aus den Quellen des Judentums''. Leipzig: Gustav Fock, 1919.
*Sigmund Freud. “S:Totem and Taboo/Chapter I, The Savage’s Dread of Incest.” In ''Totem and Taboo: Resemblances Between the Psychic Lives of Savages and Neurotics''. Translated by A.A. Brill. New York: Moffat, Yard and Company, 1919. Originally published as ''Totem und Tabu: Einige Übereinstimmungen im Seelenleben der Wilden und der Neurotiker''. Leipzig, 1913.
*Fritz Lang. ''Metropolis (1927 film), Metropolis''. Babelsberg: UFA GmbH, Universum Film A.G., 1927. (early science fiction film with Molech plot element).
*Alexander Alan Steinbach. ''Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch'', pages 90–93. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
*Thomas Mann. ''Joseph and His Brothers''. Translated by John E. Woods (translator), John E. Woods, pages 79, 82–83, 147–48, 152–53, 189, 201–02, 226–27, 336, 351, 384–86, 927. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. . Originally published as ''Joseph und seine Brüder''. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943.
*James A. Michener. ''The Source (novel), The Source'', pages 106–20. New York: Random House, 1965.
*Electric Prunes. "Kol Nidre." In ''Release of an Oath''. Reprise Records, 1968. (track based on the Yom Kippur Kol Nidre prayer).
*Seymour E. Freedman. ''The Book of Kashruth: A Treasury of Kosher Facts and Frauds''. Bloch Publishing Company, 1970. .
*Central Conference of American Rabbis
The Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR), founded in 1889 by Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise, is the principal organization of Reform rabbis in the United States and Canada. The CCAR is the largest and oldest rabbinical organization in the world. I ...
"Rights of Homosexuals."
(1977).
*Gordon Wenham, Gordon J. Wenham. ''The Book of Leviticus'', pages 225–61. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1979. .
*Pinchas Hacohen Peli, Pinchas H. Peli. ''Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture'', pages 133–36. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987. .
*David P. Wright. ''The Disposal of Impurity'', pages 15–74. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987. .
*Yehuda Amichai. ''Yom Kippur''. In ''The Fist, Too, Was Once the Palm of an Open Hand, and Fingers''. Israel, 1989. In, e.g., ''The Selected Poetry of Yehuda Amichai''. Translated by Chana Bloch and Stephen Mitchell (translator), Stephen Mitchell, pages 177–78. Oakland, California: University of California Press, 2013.
*Mark S. Smith. ''The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel'', pages 2, 132–33. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1990. .
*Harvey J. Fields. ''A Torah Commentary for Our Times: Volume II: Exodus and Leviticus'', pages 127–37. New York: UAHC Press, 1991. .
*Leah Rosenthal. “''Inui Nefesh'' (Self-Affliction) on Yom Kippur: A Literary and Conceptual Analysis of a Talmudic Discussion.” In ''Torah of the Mothers: Contemporary Jewish Women Read Classical Jewish Texts''. Edited by Ora Wiskind Elper and Susan Handelman, pages 338–54. New York and Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2000.
"Consensus Statement on Homosexuality."
New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1992. EH 24.1992a. In ''Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement''. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, page 612. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. .
*Joel Roth
"Homosexuality."
New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1992. EH 24.1992b. In ''Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement''. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 613–75. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. .
*Howard Handler
"In the Image of God: A Dissent in Favor of the Full Equality of Gay and Lesbian Jews into the Community of Conservative Judaism."
New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1992. EH 24.1992h. In ''Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement''. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 718–21. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. .
*Aaron Wildavsky. ''Assimilation versus Separation: Joseph the Administrator and the Politics of Religion in Biblical Israel'', pages 3–4. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 1993. .
*Jacob Milgrom
Jacob Milgrom (February 1, 1923 – June 5, 2010) was a prominent American Jewish Bible scholar and Conservative rabbi. Milgrom's major contribution to biblical research was in the field of cult and worship. Although he accepted the documentary ...
. "Does the Bible Prohibit Homosexuality? The biblical prohibition is addressed only to Israel. It is incorrect to apply it on a universal scale." ''Bible Review'', volume 9 (number 6) (December 1993).
*Victor Avigdor Hurowitz
"Review Essay: Ancient Israelite Cult in History, Tradition, and Interpretation."
''AJS Review'', volume 19 (number 2) (1994): pages 213–36.
*Walter Kaiser, Jr., Walter C. Kaiser Jr., " The Book of Leviticus," in ''The New Interpreter's Bible'', volume 1, pages 1107–28. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994. .
*Jacob Milgrom. "How Not to Read the Bible: I am not for homosexuality, but I am for homosexuals. When the Bible is distorted to make God their enemy I must speak out to set the record straight." ''Bible Review'', volume 10 (number 2) (April 1994).
*Judith S. Antonelli. "Sexuality." In ''In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah'', pages 288–302. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995. .
*Ellen Frankel. ''The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman's Commentary on the Torah'', pages 172–78. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996. .
*Gunther Plaut, W. Gunther Plaut. ''The Haftarah Commentary'', pages 285–91. New York: UAHC Press, 1996. .
*Calum M. Carmichael. ''Law, Legend, and Incest in the Bible: Leviticus 18–20'', pages 1–61, 189–98. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997. .
*Robert Goodman. “Yom Kippur.” In ''Teaching Jewish Holidays: History, Values, and Activities'', pages 39–61. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997. .
*Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. ''Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities'', pages 194–200. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997. .
*Jacob Milgrom. "The Blood Taboo: Blood should not be ingested because it contains life. Whoever does so is guilty of murder." ''Bible Review'', volume 13 (number 4) (August 1997).
*Jacob Milgrom. ''Leviticus 1–16'', volume 3, pages 1009–84. New York: Anchor Bible, 1998. .
*Mary Douglas. ''Leviticus as Literature'', pages 10, 33, 37, 62, 72, 76, 79, 90–92, 123, 131, 137, 140, 151, 187, 191–94, 225–26, 228, 231–40, 247–51. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. .
*Frank H. Gorman Jr. "Leviticus." In ''The HarperCollins Bible Commentary''. Edited by James Luther Mays, James L. Mays, pages 158–60. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000. .
*Jacob Milgrom. ''Leviticus 17–22'', volume 3A, pages 1447–593. New York: Anchor Bible, 2000. .
*Susan Ackerman (biblical scholar), Susan Ackerman. "When the Bible Enters the Fray: As Vermont legalizes civil unions for same-sex couples, both sides of the debate turn to the Bible for support. They might do better to turn to Bible scholars, too." ''Bible Review''. Volume 16 (number 5) (October 2000): pages 6, 50.
*Dayle Friedman, Dayle A. Friedman. "After a Death . . . Then What?" In ''The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions''. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 218–24. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000. .
*Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. ''Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies'', pages 444–50. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002. .
*Michael Fishbane. ''The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot'', pages 178–92. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002. .
*Gershon Hepner
“Abraham's Incestuous Marriage with Sarah a Violation of the Holiness Code.”
''Vetus Testamentum'', volume 53 (number 2) (April 2003): pages 143–55.
*Robert Alter. ''The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary'', pages 611–24. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004. .
*William K. Gilders. ''Blood Ritual in the Hebrew Bible: Meaning and Power''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. . (close reading of ).
*Ilana Berenbaum Grinblat. "Haftarah for Yom Kippur Morning: Isaiah 57:14–59:4." In ''The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot''. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 308–11. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004. .
*Nina H. Mandel. "Haftarat Acharei Mot: Ezekiel 22:1–19." In ''The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot''. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 134–37.
*Jacob Milgrom. ''Leviticus: A Book of Ritual and Ethics: A Continental Commentary'', pages 162–211. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004. .
*Baruch J. Schwartz. "Leviticus." In ''The Jewish Study Bible''. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 243–52. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. .
*Antony Cothey
“Ethics and Holiness in the Theology of Leviticus.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 30 (number 2) (December 2005): pages 131–51.
*''Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading'' Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 184–203. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005. .
*Bernard J. Bamberger. "Leviticus." In ''The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition''. Edited by W. Gunther Plaut; revised edition edited by David E. Stern, David E.S. Stern, pages 769–96. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006. .
*Calum Carmichael. ''Illuminating Leviticus: A Study of Its Laws and Institutions in the Light of Biblical Narratives''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006. .
*Joel Roth
"Homosexuality Revisited."
EH 24.2006a New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
*Elliot N. Dorff, Daniel S. Nevins, and Avram I. Reisner
"Homosexuality, Human Dignity & Halakhah: A Combined Responsum for the Committee on Jewish Law And Standards."
EH 24.2006b New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
*Leonard Levy
"Same-Sex Attraction and Halakhah."
EH 24.2006c New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
*Baruch Frydman-Kohl
"You Have Wrestled with God and Human and Prevailed: Homosexuality and Halakhah."
EH 24.2006d New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
*Loel M. Weiss
"Same-Sex Attraction and Halakhah: A Concurring Opinion."
EH 24.2006e New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
*Myron Geller, Robert Fine and David Fine
"A New Context: The Halakhah of Same-Sex Relations."
EH 24.2006f New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
*Gordon Tucker
"Halakhic and Metahalakhic Arguments Concerning Judaism and Homosexuality."
EH 24.2006g New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
*Suzanne A. Brody. "Blood Is Life." In ''Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems'', page 90. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007. .
*David C. Kraemer. ''Jewish Eating and Identity Through the Ages''. New York: Routledge, 2007. .
*James Kugel, James L. Kugel. ''How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now'', pages 131, 275, 291, 302–03, 321, 326–28, 609–10, 647. New York: Free Press, 2007. .
*Jennifer K. Berenson MacLean. "Barabbas, the Scapegoat Ritual, and the Development of the Passion Narrative." ''Harvard Theological Review''. Volume 100 (number 3) (July 2007): pages 309–34.
*Christophe Nihan. ''From Priestly Torah to Pentateuch: A Study in the Composition of the Book of Leviticus''. Coronet Books, 2007. .
*Kenton L. Sparks
“‘Enūma Elish’ and Priestly Mimesis: Elite Emulation in Nascent Judaism.”
''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 126 (2007): 632–35. (“Priestly Mimesis in the Day of Atonement Rite (Leviticus 16)”).
*Preston Sprinkle
“Law and Life: Leviticus 18.5 in the Literary Framework of Ezekiel.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 31 (number 3) (March 1, 2007): pages 275–93.
*James W. Watts. ''Ritual and Rhetoric in Leviticus: From Sacrifice to Scripture''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. .
*Howard Cooper
"Some Thoughts on 'Scapegoating' and Its Origins in Leviticus 16."
''European Judaism: A Journal for the New Europe'', volume 41 (number 2) (Autumn 2008): pages 112–19.
*''The Torah: A Women's Commentary''. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea Weiss (rabbi), Andrea L. Weiss, pages 679–700. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, URJ Press, 2008. .
*Nathan MacDonald. ''What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? Diet in Biblical Times''. Cambridge: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008. .
*Roland Boer
“The Forgetfulness of Julia Kristeva: Psychoanalysis, Marxism and the Taboo of the Mother.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 33 (number 3) (March 2009): pages 259–76.
*Elliot N. Dorff. “How Flexible Can Jewish Law Be? Parashat Acharei Mot (Leviticus 16:1–18:30).” In ''Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible''. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 151–56. New York: New York University Press, 2009. .
*Roy E. Gane. "Leviticus." In ''Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary''. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 304–11. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009. .
*Jeff Friedman.
Yom Kippur.
' In ''The American Poetry Review'', volume 38 (number 3) (May/June 2009), page 32.
*Reuven Hammer. ''Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion'', pages 169–71. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009. .
*Meir Malul
"אִישׁ עִתִּי (Leviticus 16:21): A Marginal Person."
''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 128 (number 3) (Fall 2009): pages 437–42.
*Union for Reform Judaism
“Eating Jewishly.”
New York, 2009. (resolution adopted by the URJ).
*Noach Dzmura. ''Balancing on the Mechitza: Transgender in Jewish Community''. Berkeley, California: North Atlantic Books, 2010. .
*Mark Leuchter
“The Politics of Ritual Rhetoric: A Proposed Sociopolitical Context for the Redaction of Leviticus 1–16.”
''Vetus Testamentum'', volume 60 (number 3) (2010): pages 345–65.
*Yitzhaq Feder
“On kuppuru, kippēr and Etymological Sins that Cannot be Wiped Away.”
''Vetus Testamentum'', volume 60 (number 4) (2010): pages 535–45.
*Stuart Lasine
“Everything Belongs to Me: Holiness, Danger, and Divine Kingship in the Post-Genesis World.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 35 (number 1) (September 2010): pages 31–62.
*Andrew Ramer, Camille Shira Angel, Dev Noily, and Jay Michaelson. ''Queering the Text: Biblical, Medieval, and Modern Jewish Stories''. Maple Shade Township, New Jersey, Maple Shade, New Jersey: White Crane Books, 2010. .
*Hershel Schachter, Mordechai Willig, Michael Rosensweig, and Mayer Twersky
"Torah View on Homosexuality"
(2010).
"Reporters' Roundtable: Sex and Sexuality Edition."
''The Forward''. (July 31, 2010). (podcast on Orthodox Judaism's attempts to address homosexuality).
*Gal Beckerman
"Debate Over Homosexuality Now Roiling Orthodox Jews: Some Rabbis Reach Out to Gays, While Others Attempt a ‘Cure.'"
''The Forward''. (August 6, 2010).
*Lawrence Rifkin
"The Times They Are A-Changin': Jewish Religious Attitudes Toward Homosexuality Are Slowly Shifting."
''The Jerusalem Report''. Volume 21 (number 11) (September 13, 2010): pages 10–13.
*Jeffrey Stackert. "Leviticus." In ''The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible''. Edited by Michael Coogan, Michael D. Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, pages 166–70. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010. .
*Mark Washofsky
"Orthodox Minyan in a Reform Synagogue."
In ''Reform Responsa for the Twenty-First Century'', volume 1, pages 3, 6 note 7, 11–12 note 7. New York: Central Conference of American Rabbis
The Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR), founded in 1889 by Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise, is the principal organization of Reform rabbis in the United States and Canada. The CCAR is the largest and oldest rabbinical organization in the world. I ...
, 2010. . (application of a difference between the House of Hillel and the House of Shammai with regard to forbidden sexual unions in the law of Levirite marriage to an Orthodox Jew's request to conduct a minyan without women in a Reform synagogue).
*''All These Vows: Kol Nidre''. Edited by Lawrence A. Hoffman. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2011. .
*Brad Embry
“The ‘Naked Narrative’ from Noah to Leviticus: Reassessing Voyeurism in the Account of Noah’s Nakedness in Genesis 9.22–24.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 35 (number 4) (June 2011): pages 417–33. ().
*Jonathan Haidt. ''The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion'', pages 13, 103, 325 note 22, 337 note 16. New York: Pantheon, 2012. . (kashrut).
*Shmuel Herzfeld. "The Cycles of Yom Kippur." In ''Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons'', pages 164–68. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012. .
*Central Conference of American Rabbis, CCAR Responsa Committee
"Same-Sex Marriage as Kiddushin."
5774.4. (2013).
*Tracy M. Lemos
“Where There Is Dirt, Is There System? Revisiting Biblical Purity Constructions.”
''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'', volume 37 (number 3) (March 2013): pages 265–94.
*Amiel Ungar
"Gay Marriage and the Jewish Question: A conscious decision not to produce Jewish descendants is lamentable and means that liberal Judaism will have fewer stakeholders in the future."
''The Jerusalem Report'', volume 24 (number 5) (June 17, 2013): page 22.
*Adam Nagourney. "Gay Marriage Stirs Rebellion at Synagogue." ''The New York Times''. (July 6, 2013): page A1.
*Shmuel Klitsner
"The Cloud, the Mist, the Thicket: Moments of doubt and unanswered questions foster spiritual search."
''The Jerusalem Report''. Volume 24 (number 12) (September 23, 2013): page 44.
*Eve Levavi Feinstein. “Leviticus 18 and Sexual Pollution of Men.” In ''Sexual Pollution in the Hebrew Bible'', pages 100–31. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
*Sam Schulman
"Same-Sex Marriage and the Jews."
''Mosaic Magazine''. (February 2014).
*Shmuel Herzfeld. ''Food for the Spirit: Inspirational Lessons from the Yom Kippur Service''. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2014. .
*Jonathan Sacks. ''Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Leviticus: The Book of Holiness'', pages 239–79. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2015. .
*Jonathan Sacks. ''Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible'', pages 153–56. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015. .
*David Booth, Ashira Konigsburg, and Baruch Frydman-Kohl
“Modesty Inside and Out: A Contemporary Guide to Tzniut,”
page 7. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2016. ( and modesty in dress).
*Jonathan Sacks. ''Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible'', pages 183–87. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016. .
*Shai Held. ''The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy'', pages 52–60. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017. .
*Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. ''The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary'', pages 93–96. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017. .
*Leonard A. Sharzer
“Transgender Jews and Halakhah.”
New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2017.
*Idan Dershowitz
''The New York Times'', July 21, 2018. ( and ).
*Maxine Grossman. “Queerly Sectarian: Jewish Difference, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and Marital Disciplines.” ''Journal of Jewish Identities'', volume 11 (number 1) (2018): page 93.
*Laura Reiley
“Doctrine and Diet: Shalt Thou Eat an Impossible Burger?”
''The Washington Post''. September 12, 2019, pages A1, A18.
*Julia Rhyder
"Sabbath and Sanctuary Cult in the Holiness Legislation: A Reassessment."
''Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 138, number 4 (2019): pages 721–40.
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