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A leaf miner is any one of numerous species of
insect Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body ( head, thorax and abdomen), three ...
s in which the
larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. ...
l stage lives in, and eats, the
leaf A leaf ( : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", while the leaves, ste ...
tissue of plants. The vast majority of leaf-mining insects are
moth Moths are a paraphyletic group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not butterflies, with moths making up the vast majority of the order. There are thought to be approximately 160,000 species of moth, many of w ...
s ( Lepidoptera), sawflies ( Symphyta, the mother clade of
wasp A wasp is any insect of the narrow-waisted suborder Apocrita of the order Hymenoptera which is neither a bee nor an ant; this excludes the broad-waisted sawflies (Symphyta), which look somewhat like wasps, but are in a separate suborder. ...
s), and flies ( Diptera). Some
beetle Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera (), in the superorder Endopterygota. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 describ ...
s also exhibit this behavior. Like
woodboring beetle The term woodboring beetle encompasses many species and families of beetles whose larval or adult forms eat and destroy wood (i.e., are xylophagous). In the woodworking industry, larval stages of some are sometimes referred to as woodworms. The ...
s, leaf miners are protected from many
predator Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation (which usually do not kill th ...
s and plant defenses by feeding within the tissues of the leaves, selectively eating only the layers that have the least amount of
cellulose Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula , a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of β(1→4) linked D-glucose units. Cellulose is an important structural component of the primary cell w ...
. When attacking ''
Quercus robur ''Quercus robur'', commonly known as common oak, pedunculate oak, European oak or English oak, is a species of flowering plant in the beech and oak family, Fagaceae. It is a large tree, native to most of Europe west of the Caucasus. It is widel ...
'' (English oak), they also selectively feed on tissues containing lower levels of
tannin Tannins (or tannoids) are a class of astringent, polyphenolic biomolecules that bind to and precipitate proteins and various other organic compounds including amino acids and alkaloids. The term ''tannin'' (from Anglo-Norman ''tanner'' ...
, a deterrent chemical produced in great abundance by the tree. The pattern of the feeding tunnel and the layer of the leaf being mined is often diagnostic of the insect responsible, sometimes even to
species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...
level. The mine often contains
frass Frass refers loosely to the more or less solid excreta of insects, and to certain other related matter. Definition and etymology ''Frass'' is an informal term and accordingly it is variously used and variously defined. It is derived from the ...
, or droppings, and the pattern of frass deposition, mine shape, and host plant identity are useful to determine the species and
instar An instar (, from the Latin '' īnstar'', "form", "likeness") is a developmental stage of arthropods, such as insects, between each moult (''ecdysis''), until sexual maturity is reached. Arthropods must shed the exoskeleton in order to grow or ...
of the leaf miner. Some mining insects feed in other parts of a plant, such as the surface of a
fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particu ...
or the petal of a flower. It has been suggested that some patterns of leaf variegation may be part of a defensive strategy employed by plants to deceive adult leaf miners into thinking that a leaf has already been preyed upon.


Leaf-mining species

One common leaf-mining species in New Zealand is ''
Scaptomyza flava ''Scaptomyza flava'' is an herbivorous leaf mining fly species in the family Drosophilidae. In Latin, '' flava'' means golden or yellow. The fly is amber to dark brown in color and approximately 2.5 mm in length. In Europe and New Zealand th ...
.'' The species is particularly problematic for plants in the family Brassiceae, more commonly known as mustard plants.


Relationship with humans

Leaf miners are regarded as pests by many farmers and gardeners as they can cause damage to
agricultural crops A crop is a plant that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. When the plants of the same kind are cultivated at one place on a large scale, it is called a crop. Most crops are cultivated in agriculture or hydroponics ...
and
garden A garden is a planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the cultivation, display, and enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature. The single feature identifying even the wildest wild garden is ''control''. The garden can incorporate bot ...
plants, and can be difficult to control with insecticide sprays as they are protected inside the plant's leaves. Spraying the infected plants with
spinosad Spinosad is an insecticide based on chemical compounds found in the bacterial species ''Saccharopolyspora spinosa''. The genus '' Saccharopolyspora'' was discovered in 1985 in isolates from crushed sugarcane. The bacteria produce yellowish-pink ...
, an organic insecticide, can control some leaf miners. Spinosad does not kill on contact and must be ingested by the leaf miner. Two or three applications may be required in a season. However, this will have harmful ecological effects, especially if sprayed when bees or other beneficial arthropods are present. Leaf miner infection of crops can be reduced or prevented by planting
trap crop A trap crop is a plant that attracts agricultural pests, usually insects, away from nearby crops. This form of companion planting can save the main crop from decimation by pests without the use of pesticides. /sup> A trap crop is used for attracti ...
s near the plants to be protected. For example, lambsquarter and columbine will distract leaf miners, drawing them to those plants and therefore reducing the incidence of attack on nearby crops. This is a method of
companion planting Companion planting in gardening and agriculture is the planting of different crops in proximity for any of a number of different reasons, including pest control, pollination, providing habitat for beneficial insects, maximizing use of space, a ...
.


See also

*
Agromyzidae The Agromyzidae are a family commonly referred to as the leaf-miner flies, for the feeding habits of their larvae, most of which are leaf miners on various plants. A worldwide family of roughly 2,500 species, they are small, some with wing l ...
(leaf miner flies) *'' Pegomya hyoscyami'' (spinach/beet leaf miner) * Douglasiidae (including ''
Tinagma ''Tinagma'' is a genus of moths in the Douglasiidae family. It is primarily found in the Palearctic realm, Palearctic and Nearctic realm, Nearctic realms Species *''Tinagma anchusella'' Benander, 1936 *''Tinagma balteolella'' (Fischer von Rosler ...
'', the largest
genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nom ...
of Douglasiidae) *
Gracillariidae Gracillariidae is an important family of insects in the order Lepidoptera and the principal family of leaf miners that includes several economic, horticultural or recently invasive pest species such as the horse-chestnut leaf miner, ''Camerar ...
*''
Liriomyza sativae ''Liriomyza sativae'', commonly known as the vegetable leaf miner, is a species of insect, a fly in the family Agromyzidae. The larvae of this fly mine the leaves of a range of vegetables and weeds, but seem to favour plants in the families Cucu ...
'' (vegetable leaf miner) *''
Liriomyza trifolii ''Liriomyza trifolii'', known generally as the American serpentine leafminer or celery leafminer, is a species of leaf miner fly in the family Agromyzidae. ''L. trifolii'' is a damaging pest, as it consumes and destroys produce and other plant p ...
'' (American serpentine leaf miner) *
Nepticulidae Nepticulidae is a family of very small moths with a worldwide distribution. They are characterised by eyecaps over the eyes (see also Opostegidae, Bucculatricidae, Lyonetiidae). These pigmy moths or midget moths, as they are commonly known, incl ...
*
Horse-chestnut leaf miner The horse-chestnut leaf miner (''Cameraria ohridella'') is a leaf-mining moth of the family Gracillariidae. The horse-chestnut leaf miner was first observed in North Macedonia in 1984, and was described as a new species in 1986.
(''Cameraria ohridella'') *
Tenthredinidae Tenthredinidae is the largest family of sawflies, with well over 7,500 species worldwide, divided into 430 genera. Larvae are herbivores and typically feed on the foliage of trees and shrubs, with occasional exceptions that are leaf miners, stem ...
(some species) *
Tischerioidea Tischerioidea is the superfamily of "trumpet" leaf miner moths. The superfamily contains just one family, Tischeriidae, and traditionally one genus, '' Tischeria'', but currently three genera are recognised, widespread around the world including ...
(trumpet leaf-miner moths) *
Folivore In zoology, a folivore is a herbivore that specializes in eating leaves. Mature leaves contain a high proportion of hard-to-digest cellulose, less energy than other types of foods, and often toxic compounds.Jones, S., Martin, R., & Pilbeam, D. (1 ...


References


External links


British leafminers
- many of which are distributed widely across Europe.
The leaf and stem mines of British flies and other insects
Includes illustrated keys for identification of mines by host-plant genus and detailed descriptions of over 900 species along with their distribution in Great Britain and Northern Ireland and elsewhere.
Leafminers of Europe
- covers over 1800 leafmining insect species.

on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site
''Liriomyza trifolii'', American serpentine leafminer
Center for Invasive Species Research page on Citrus Leaf Miner {{Authority control Agricultural pest insects Folivores Leaf miners