''Laurencia'' is a genus of

red algae Red algae, or Rhodophyta (, ; ), are one of the oldest groups of eukaryotic algae. The Rhodophyta also comprises one of the largest phyla of algae, containing over 7,000 currently recognized species with taxonomic revisions ongoing. The majority ...

that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to .

Description

''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, whorled or radial branch arrangement.

Taxonomy and Nomenclature

The genus name of ''Laurencia'' is in honour of Louis Jean de La Laurencie (1768-1829), who was a French Naval officer, Director of the University of Limoges and also a friend of the author, Jean Vincent Félix Lamouroux. The genus was

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by Jean Vincent Félix Lamouroux in Ann. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat. vol.20 on page 130 in 1813. It included an initial description of eight species which then subsequently underwent taxonomic revisions. The genus belongs to order Ceramiales reported to have 137 species, with a rich body of knowledge spanning for more than 50 years of research. ''Laurencia'' belongs to the family Rhodomelaceae which is considered to be one of the largest marine red algae family, estimated to have 125 genera and 700 species all over the world. In Laurenciae, a tribe consisting of eight genera, have a taxonomic group called "''Laurencia complex''" or ''Laurencia'' sensu lato which includes six of eight genera, ''Chondrophycus, Laurencia, Laurenciella, Osmundea, Palisada,'' and ''Yuzurua''.

Morphology

''Laurencia'' is a small to medium sized red algae which may appear to be iridescent with thalli reaching up to 40 cm. Thalli can be branching, which can either be bilateral or spread in all directions. Its appendages can be rhizoidal or discoidal in appearance on stoloniferous holdfasts. Branch shape appears to be flat or cylindrical in morphology. Branchlets may be slightly rigid with a shape that may be blunt, truncate or claviform. ''Laurencia'' has shown high diversity as a genus, with species having distinct features that can easily be determined within the ''Laurencia'' complex. Molecular studies using rbcL (RuBisCO, Ribulose-1,5-Bisphosphate Carboxylase Oxygenase, Large chain) have uncovered evidences which divided the ''Laurencia'' complex, identiying the genus ''Laurenciella,'' which shares similar morphology with ''Laurencia'' but has a different rbcL sequence.

Distribution

''Laurencia'' can be found all over the world, in particular in tropical and subtropical regions with warmer waters. Its habitats range from tide pools, reef flats, mud flats, and a variety of hard substrates (e.g. rocks, corals), within intertidal and subtidal zones up to 65 m. It is also described as "turf-forming" wherein it can cover a majority of hard substrate in some areas. In Myanmar, it can be found growing together with some species of ''Cladophora, Chaetomorpha, Dictyota, Gelidium, Ceramium, Caloglossa, Catenella, Polysiphonia, Acanthophora,'' and ''Bostrychia''.

Ecology

''Laurencia'' has numerous ecological roles, serving as refuge for different marine organisms in areas where they grow abundantly, forming forests. They are also hosts of various mircoorganisms and parasitic algae, known as ''Janczewskia'.'' As producers, they are also fed on by some grazers such as crabs, queen conch, and sea hares despite its chemical deterrent. The growth of ''Laurencia'' is significantly affected by changes in nutrient availability and temperature. The effects of pollution in ''Laurencia'' are somewhat inconsistent showing its adaptability in Indian Ocean but markedly showed a decrease in biomass in polluted areas in the Mediterranean. Space within the environment is also a necessity for ''Laurencia'' survival. In field trials, ''Laurencia'' tends to inhibit coral larvae dispersal resulting to higher mortality when the algae is present.

Life History

''Laurencia'' grows throughout the year, with spermatangial individuals appearing from early August to late September while cystocarpic ones appear from mid-August to late October. From July to October, mature tetrasporangial plants appear. Gametophytic individuals are dioecious in nature, typically developed on the branchlets, but can be present in the main branch as well. Male gametophytes contain spermatangia on trichoblast while female gametophytes contain carpogonia, representing the haploid phase. Two diploid phases occur in ''Laurencia'': one with carpogonia and carpospore and the other, with tetrasporangia. Therefore, ''Laurencia'' undergoes three phases in its life cycle: one haploid phase and two diploid phases, consistent to the ''Polysiphonia'' triphasic life history.

Cultivation and Exploitation

A growing interest in the cultivation of ''Laurencia brongniartii'' has emerged due to its potential to be a newfound source for antibiotics. The common method is indoor tank culture, utilizing an excised apical tip from a thalli sample. Initial trials have confirmed its viability for culture providing opportunities for personnel with little to no experience in algae cultivation. The cost of production is relatively low, with maintenance costs at its core. Small-scale operations may be profitable in maximizing algae production, however more studies are needed to evaluate these conditions.

Chemical Composition

''Laurencia'' species are known to have several natural products exhibiting numerous biological activities such as chemical defense against grazers, anti-fouling chemical affecting ''Perna perna'' attachment, and anti-fouling activities. In addition, ''Laurencia'' is known to be an abundant source of halogenated metabolites, including a variety of terpenes (e.g. sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes, and C₁₅ acetogenins). In Vietnam, ''L. snackeyi'' may be a potential species to evaluate new chemical races, similar to ''L. nipponica'' seeing how these may indicate similarities in morphology but differences in chemical content subject to geographical distribution.

Utilization and Management

A total of 1047 secondary metabolites have been extracted from ''Laurencia'' and ''Aplysia'' species since 2015. The diverse chemical composition of ''Laurencia'' has been subject to numerous research mainly attributed to both environmental and genetic factors. For years, humans have utilized ''Laurencia'' as food, medicinal products, fertilizers, and from recent research, an abundant source of pharmacological significance. The commercialization of the species may require further research in order to optimize culture conditions and eventually, harvest greater yield and develop a more systematic cultivation system.

Species

AlgaeBase, a database with detailed information on species of ''Laurencia'', includes 137 taxonomically accepted species , and differentiates these from a further ~375 entries of uncertain taxonomic status; it further delineates homotypic or heterotypic

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. Commonly observed species of ''Laurencia'' include the shallow subtidal ''

Laurencia nidifica ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, whorled ...

'' (Hawaii), ''

Laurencia pacifica ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, whorled ...

'' (California), and ''

Laurencia thyrsifera ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, whorle ...

'' (New Zealand). Species seen in the British Isles include '' Laurencia hybrida'', ''

Laurencia obtusa ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, whorle ...

'', ''

Laurencia osmunda ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, whorle ...

'', '' Laurencia pinnatifida'', ''

Laurencia pyramidalis ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, whorle ...

'', and ''

Laurencia truncata ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, whorle ...

''. The World Register of Marine Species lists the following species as accepted:Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. (2018). AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway (taxonomic information republished from AlgaeBase with permission of M.D. Guiry). Laurencia J.V.Lamouroux, 1813. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=143914 on 2018-11-01 *''

Laurencia aguilar-rosasorum ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, whorle ...

'' J.N.Norris, 2014 *''

Laurencia aldingensis ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, whorl ...

'' Saito &

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, 1974 *''

Laurencia alsidioides ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, whorl ...

'' P.L.Crouan & H.M.Crouan, 1865 (''

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'') *''

Laurencia arbuscula ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, whorl ...

Sonder Sonder may refer to: Geography *Mount Sonder, mountain in Australia *Sonder, village in Minahasa Regency, Indonesia People *Otto Wilhelm Sonder (1812–1881), German botanist and pharmacist Other uses * Sonder (Dermot Kennedy album), ''Sonder'' ( ...

, 1845 *'' Laurencia batracopus'' (

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) Greville, 1830 *'' Laurencia boryi'' De Notaris, 1842 *'' Laurencia botrychioides'' Harvey, 1855 *'' Laurencia botryocarpa'' Shperk, 1869 *'' Laurencia botryoides'' ( C.Agardh) Gaillon, 1828 *'' Laurencia brachyclados'' Pilger, 1920 *'' Laurencia brasiliana'' G.Martens, 1871 *''

Laurencia brongniartii ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, whorl ...

'' J.Agardh, 1841 *'' Laurencia caduciramulosa''

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& Kawaguchi, 1997 *''

Laurencia californica ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, whorle ...

'' ( Kützing) Kützing, 1865 *'' Laurencia calliclada''

, 1997 *'' Laurencia calliptera'' Kützing, 1865 *'' Laurencia canaliculata'' J.Agardh *'' Laurencia caraibica'' P.C.Silva, 1972 *'' Laurencia caspica'' A.D.Zinova & Zaberzhinskaya, 1967 *'' Laurencia catarinensis'' Cordeiro-Marino & Fujii, 1985 *'' Laurencia cervicornis'' Harvey, 1853 *'' Laurencia chauvinii''

*'' Laurencia chilensis'' De Toni, Forti & M.A.Howe, 1920 *'' Laurencia chinensis'' C.K.Tseng, 1943 *'' Laurencia chondrioides'' Børgesen, 1918 *'' Laurencia cladonioides'' Kützing *'' Laurencia clarionensis'' Setchell & Gardner, 1937 *'' Laurencia clavata''

, 1853 *'' Laurencia clavifera'' Suhr *'' Laurencia claviformis'' Børgesen, 1924 *'' Laurencia coelenterata'' D.L.Ballantine & Aponte, 1995 *'' Laurencia complanata'' ( Suhr) Kützing, 1849 *'' Laurencia composita''

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, 1931 *'' Laurencia condaoensis'' Pham Hoàng Hô *'' Laurencia congesta''

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, 1945 *'' Laurencia coronopus'' J.Agardh, 1852 *'' Laurencia corymbifera'' Kützing *'' Laurencia corymbosa'' J.Agardh, 1852 *'' Laurencia crassifrons'' P.L.Crouan & H.M.Crouan *'' Laurencia crustiformans'' K.J.McDermid, 1989 *'' Laurencia cryptoclada'' Kützing, 1866 *'' Laurencia cyanosperma'' (

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) Gaillon, 1828 *'' Laurencia cyanosperma''

ex J.V.Lamouroux, 1813 *'' Laurencia cylindrica'' ( Kützing) Kützing *'' Laurencia cymosa'' Kützing, 1865 *''

Laurencia decidua ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, wh ...

'' E.Y.Dawson, 1954 *'' Laurencia decumbens'' Kützing, 1863 *'' Laurencia dendroidea'' J.Agardh, 1852 *'' Laurencia densissima'' Setchell &

N.L.Gardner Nathaniel Lyon Gardner (February 26, 1864 – August 15, 1937), was an American phycologist and mycologist who taught at the University of California, Berkeley, where he was the curator of the University Herbarium. He is known for his work on s ...

, 1937 *'' Laurencia depauperata'' Zanardini *'' Laurencia distichophylla'' J.Agardh, 1852 *''

Laurencia elata ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, wh ...

'' ( C.Agardh) J.D.Hooker & Harvey, 1847 *'' Laurencia epiphylla'' F.Boisset & J.C.Lino, 1998 *'' Laurencia ericoides'' Kützing *'' Laurencia fasciculata'' ( Turner) Greville, 1830 *'' Laurencia fastigiata'' Montagne, 1846 *'' Laurencia fenicalli'' J.N.Norris, 2014 *'' Laurencia filiformis'' ( C.Agardh) Montagne, 1845 ** ''Laurencia filiformis'' f. ''decussata'' A.B.Cribb *'' Laurencia flagelliformis'' J.Agardh *'' Laurencia flexuosa'' Kützing, 1849 *'' Laurencia foldatsii'' N.Rodríguez Rios, 1981 *'' Laurencia forsteri'' (

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ex Turner) Greville, 1830 *'' Laurencia galtsoffii'' M.A.Howe, 1934 *''

Laurencia gardneri ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, wh ...

'' Hollenberg, 1943 *'' Laurencia glomerata'' ( Kützing) Kützing, 1849 *'' Laurencia gracilis'' J.D.Hooker & Harvey, 1849 *'' Laurencia griseaviolacea'' M.J.Wynne, 2017 *''

Laurencia hamata ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, wh ...

, 1932 *'' Laurencia hancockii'' E.Y.Dawson, 1944 *'' Laurencia heteroclada'' Harvey, 1855 *'' Laurencia hongkongensis'' C.K.Tseng, C.F.Chang, E.Z.Xia & B.M.Xia, 1980 *'' Laurencia humilis'' Setchell &

, 1930 *'' Laurencia indica'' Hauck, 1888 ** ''Laurencia indica'' var. ''nidifica'' Hauck, 1888 *'' Laurencia intercalaris'' K.W.Nam, 1994 *'' Laurencia intricata'' J.V.Lamouroux, 1813 *'' Laurencia iriei'' J.N.Norris *'' Laurencia irieii'' J.N.Norris *'' Laurencia japonensis'' T.Abe &

, 1998 *'' Laurencia johnstonii'' Setchell & Gardner, 1924 *'' Laurencia lageniformis''

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, 1997 *'' Laurencia lajolla'' E.Y.Dawson, 1958 *'' Laurencia laurahuertana'' Mateo-Cid, Mendoza-González, Senties & Diaz-Larrea, 2014 *'' Laurencia laxa'' ( R.Brown ex Turner) Gaillon, 1828 *''

Laurencia ligulata ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, wh ...

'' E.Y.Dawson, 1963 *'' Laurencia lutea'' J.V.Lamouroux *'' Laurencia mariannensis''

, 1931 *'' Laurencia masonii'' Setchell &

, 1930 *'' Laurencia maxineae'' E.Y.Dawson, 1944 *'' Laurencia mcdermidiae'' I.A.Abbott, 1996 *'' Laurencia mediocris'' Setchell &

, 1937 *'' Laurencia melanothrix'' ( Bory) Kützing *'' Laurencia mexicana'' Kützing *''

Laurencia microcladia ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in Littoral zone, littoral to Littoral zone#Sublittoral zone, sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that ...

'' Kützing, 1865 *'' Laurencia minuscula'' Schnetter, 1976 *'' Laurencia minuta'' H.Vandermeulen, Garbary & Guiry, 1990 ** ''Laurencia minuta'' subsp. ''scammaccae'' G.Furnari & Cormaci, 1990 *'' Laurencia moretonensis'' A.B.Cribb, 1958 *'' Laurencia multiflora'' Kützing, 1865 *'' Laurencia nana'' ( C.Agardh) Greville, 1830 *'' Laurencia nangii''

, 1997 *'' Laurencia nanhaiensis'' L.Ding, B.Huang, B.M.Xia & C.K.Tseng, 2007 *'' Laurencia natalensis'' Kylin, 1938 *''

'' J.Agardh, 1852 ** ''Laurencia nidifica'' var. ''tenuior''

*'' Laurencia nipponica''

, 1931 *'' Laurencia nuda'' Suhr, 1840 *''

'' (

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) J.V.Lamouroux, 1813 - type species ** ''Laurencia obtusa'' var. ''compacta'' A.B.Cribb, 1958 ** ''Laurencia obtusa'' var. ''densa''

** ''Laurencia obtusa'' var. ''divaricata''

, 1931 ** ''Laurencia obtusa'' var. ''gracilis'' ( C.Agardh) Zanardini, 1847 ** ''Laurencia obtusa'' f. ''laxa'' ** ''Laurencia obtusa'' var. ''mollissima'' A.B.Cribb, 1958 ** ''Laurencia obtusa'' var. ''pulvinata''

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** ''Laurencia obtusa'' var. ''pyramidalis'' Harvey, 1849 ** ''Laurencia obtusa'' f. ''pyramidata'' ( J.Agardh) Van Heurck, 1908 ** ''Laurencia obtusa'' var. ''pyramidica'' J.Agardh ** ''Laurencia obtusa'' var. ''racemosa'' Kützing, 1865 ** ''Laurencia obtusa'' var. ''rigidula'' Grunow, 1874 *'' Laurencia obtusiuscula'' Setchell & Gardner, 1924 ** ''Laurencia obtusiuscula'' var. ''corymbifera'' Setchell & Gardner, 1924 ** ''Laurencia obtusiuscula'' var. ''laxa'' Setchell & Gardner, 1924 *'' Laurencia okamurae''

, 1931 *'' Laurencia oliveirana'' Yoneshigue, 1985 *'' Laurencia omaezakiana''

, 1997 *'' Laurencia oophora'' Kützing, 1865 *'' Laurencia oppositoclada''

*'' Laurencia oppositocladia''

, 1945 *'' Laurencia ovalis'' (

) Frauenfeld *''

'' Kylin, 1941 *'' Laurencia paitensis''

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, 1947 *'' Laurencia pannosa'' Zanardini, 1872 *'' Laurencia parvula'' Børgesen, 1937 *'' Laurencia patentissima'' ützing, 1865 *'' Laurencia peninsularis'' Stegenga, J.J.Bolton & R.J.Anderson, 1987 *'' Laurencia peninsularis''

, 1945 *'' Laurencia pinnata''

, 1931 *'' Laurencia pinnatifida'' ( S.G.Gmel.) Lamouroux *'' Laurencia pistillaris'' J.V.Lamouroux, 1822 *'' Laurencia platyclada'' Børgesen, 1934 *'' Laurencia ptychodes'' A.B.Cribb, 1983 *'' Laurencia pumila'' ( Grunow) Papenfuss, 1943 *''

ex Kützing, 1849 *'' Laurencia pyramidata''

, 1852 *'' Laurencia pyrifera'' ( Kützing) Kützing *'' Laurencia radicans'' ( Kützing) Kützing, 1849 *'' Laurencia richardsii'' E.Y.Dawson, 1954 *'' Laurencia rigida'' J.Agardh, 1876 *'' Laurencia saitoi'' L.P.Perestenko, 1980 *'' Laurencia scrippsensis'' E.Y.Dawson, 1944 *''

Laurencia setacea ''Laurencia'' is a genus of red algae that grow in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to . Description ''Laurencia'' species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, wh ...

'' Kützing *'' Laurencia shepherdii'' Saito &

, 1974 *'' Laurencia silvae'' J.F.Zhang & B.M.Xia, 1983 *'' Laurencia similis'' K.W.Nam & Y.Saito, 1991 *'' Laurencia singaporensis'' Zanardini ex De Toni & Levi, 1888 *'' Laurencia snackeyi'' ( Weber-van Bosse) M.Masuda, 1997 *'' Laurencia snyderae'' E.Y.Dawson, 1945 ** ''Laurencia snyderae'' var. ''guadalupensis'' E.Y.Dawson, 1963 *'' Laurencia spicifera''

, 1881 *'' Laurencia spinulifera'' Kützing, 1865 *'' Laurencia subcolumnaris'' Børgesen, 1954 *'' Laurencia subcorymbosa'' E.Y.Dawson, 1963 *'' Laurencia subdisticha'' E.Y.Dawson, Neushul & Wildman, 1960 *'' Laurencia subopposita'' ( J.Agardh) Setchell, 1914 *'' Laurencia subsimplex'' C.K.Tseng, 1943 *'' Laurencia succulenta'' K.W.Nam, 2006 *'' Laurencia tasmanica'' J.D.Hooker & Harvey, 1849 *'' Laurencia tenera'' C.K.Tseng, 1943 *'' Laurencia tenuissima'' ** ''Laurencia tenuissima'' var. ''corymbulosa'' Caldesi *'' Laurencia thrysoidea'' Montagne *''

'' J.Agardh, 1876 *'' Laurencia thyrsoides'' ( Turner) Gaillon, 1828 *'' Laurencia translucida'' Fujii & Cordeiro-Marina, 1996 *'' Laurencia tristicha'' C.K.Tseng, C.F.Chang, E.Z.Xia & B.M.Xia *'' Laurencia tropica''

, 1931 *'' Laurencia tuberculosa'' J.Agardh *'' Laurencia turbinata'' Setchell &

, 1937 *'' Laurencia uncinata'' Zanardini, 1847 *'' Laurencia urceolata'' J.Agardh *'' Laurencia usneoides'' ( C.Agardh) Kützing, 1849 *'' Laurencia uvifera'' ( Forsskål) Børgesen, 1932 *'' Laurencia venusta''

, 1931 *'' Laurencia verruculosa'' Børgesen, 1954 *'' Laurencia versicolor'' ( Vahl) J.V.Lamouroux *'' Laurencia vieillardii'' Kützing, 1865 *'' Laurencia viridis'' Gil-Rodríguez &

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, 1992 *'' Laurencia voragina''

, 1945 *'' Laurencia wrightii'' ( Turner) Kützing

Uses

''Laurencia nidifica'' is used as a condiment in Hawaii due to its peppery taste.