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is a form of traditional
Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the n ...
ese comic
theater Theatre or theater is a collaborative form of performing art that uses live performers, usually actors or actresses, to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a stage. The perfor ...
. It developed alongside '' Noh'', was performed along with ''Noh'' as an intermission of sorts between ''Noh'' acts on the same stage, and retains close links to ''Noh'' in the modern day; therefore, it is sometimes designated ''Noh-kyōgen''. Its contents are nevertheless not at all similar to the formal, symbolic, and solemn ''Noh'' theater; ''kyōgen'' is a comic form, and its primary goal is to make its audience laugh. ''Kyōgen'' together with ''Noh'' is part of ''
Nōgaku ''Nōgaku'' (能楽) is one of the traditional styles of Japanese theater. It is composed of the lyric drama ''noh'', and the comic theater ''kyōgen'' (狂言). Traditionally, both types of theatre are performed together, the ''kyōgen'' being ...
'' theatre. ''Kyōgen'' is sometimes compared to the Italian comic form of commedia dell'arte, which developed around the same period (14th century) and likewise features
stock character A stock character, also known as a character archetype, is a fictional character in a work of art such as a novel, play, or a film whom audiences recognize from frequent recurrences in a particular literary tradition. There is a wide range of s ...
s. It also has parallels with the Greek
satyr play The satyr play is a form of Attic theatre performance related to both comedy and tragedy. It preserves theatrical elements of dialogue, actors speaking verse, a chorus that dances and sings, masks and costumes. Its relationship to tragedy is stro ...
, a short, comical play performed between tragedies.


History

One of the oldest ancestors of kyogen is considered to be a comical mimicry, which was one of the arts constituting Sangaku ( :ja:散楽), and Sangaku was introduced to Japan from China in the
Nara period The of the history of Japan covers the years from CE 710 to 794. Empress Genmei established the capital of Heijō-kyō (present-day Nara). Except for a five-year period (740–745), when the capital was briefly moved again, it remained the c ...
in the 8th century. In the
Heian period The is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. It followed the Nara period, beginning when the 50th emperor, Emperor Kanmu, moved the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto). means "peace" in Japan ...
(794-1185), sangaku developed into sarugaku by merging with Japanese traditional performing arts such as dengaku, and in the
Kamakura period The is a period of Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura by the first ''shōgun'' Minamoto no Yoritomo after the conclusion of the Genpei War, which saw the struggle b ...
(1185-1333), it was divided into Noh, which was a drama of serious singing and dancing, and kyogen, which was a comical speech and play. When Kan'ami and Zeami completed Noh in the style known today in the early
Muromachi period The is a division of Japanese history running from approximately 1336 to 1573. The period marks the governance of the Muromachi or Ashikaga shogunate (''Muromachi bakufu'' or ''Ashikaga bakufu''), which was officially established in 1338 by ...
(1333-1573) in the 14th century, Kyōgen was a simple and comical short play different from the style known today, and performers of kyōgen were under the control of a Noh troupe. In the late Muromachi period, kyōgen as a form of theater was developed and the Ōkura school was established by kyōgen performers. In the
Edo period The or is the period between 1603 and 1867 in the history of Japan, when Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional '' daimyo''. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengoku period, the Edo period was character ...
(1606-1868), Sagi school and Izumi school were established. Since the
Tokugawa shogunate The Tokugawa shogunate (, Japanese 徳川幕府 ''Tokugawa bakufu''), also known as the , was the military government of Japan during the Edo period from 1603 to 1868. Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005)"''Tokugawa-jidai''"in ''Japan Encyclopedia ...
designated kyōgen and Noh as ceremonial arts in the Edo period, kyōgen performers of these three schools were employed by the Tokugawa shogunate, each
daimyō were powerful Japanese magnates, feudal lords who, from the 10th century to the early Meiji period in the middle 19th century, ruled most of Japan from their vast, hereditary land holdings. They were subordinate to the shogun and nominall ...
(feudal lord) and the Imperial Court, and kyōgen also developed greatly.Kotobank, ''Kyōgen''.
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Kyōgen provided a major influence on the later development of
kabuki is a classical form of Japanese dance- drama. Kabuki theatre is known for its heavily-stylised performances, the often-glamorous costumes worn by performers, and for the elaborate make-up worn by some of its performers. Kabuki is thought ...
theater. After the earlier, more ribald forms of kabuki had been outlawed in the mid-17th century, the government permitted the establishment of the new ''yarō-kabuki'' (men's kabuki) only on the grounds that it refrain from the previous kabuki forms' lewdness and instead model itself after kyōgen. Noh had been the official entertainment form of the
Edo period The or is the period between 1603 and 1867 in the history of Japan, when Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the country's 300 regional '' daimyo''. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengoku period, the Edo period was character ...
, and was therefore subsidized by the government. Kyōgen, performed in conjunction with Noh, also received the patronage of the government and the upper class during this time. Following the
Meiji Restoration The , referred to at the time as the , and also known as the Meiji Renovation, Revolution, Regeneration, Reform, or Renewal, was a political event that restored practical imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Although there were ...
, however, this support ceased. Without government support, Noh and kyōgen went into decline, as many Japanese citizens gravitated toward the more "modern" Western art forms. In 1879, however, then-former US President
Ulysses S. Grant Ulysses S. Grant (born Hiram Ulysses Grant ; April 27, 1822July 23, 1885) was an American military officer and politician who served as the 18th president of the United States from 1869 to 1877. As Commanding General, he led the Union A ...
and his wife, while touring Japan, expressed an interest in the traditional art of Noh. They became the first
Americans Americans are the citizens and nationals of the United States of America.; ; Although direct citizens and nationals make up the majority of Americans, many dual citizens, expatriates, and permanent residents could also legally claim Ame ...
to witness Noh and kyōgen plays and are said to have enjoyed the performance. Their approval is believed to have sparked a revival of interest in these forms. In modern Japan, kyōgen is performed both separately and as a part of Noh. When performed as part of a Noh performance, kyōgen can take three forms: a separate (comic) kyōgen play, performed between two Noh plays (inter-Noh), which is known as , as a (non-comic) scene ''within'' a Noh play (intra-Noh, between two scenes), which is known as , or as . In aikyōgen, most often the main Noh actor (''shite'') leaves the stage and is replaced by a , who then explains the play (for the benefit of the audience), though other forms are also possible – the aikyōgen happening at the start, or the kyōgen actor otherwise interacting with the Noh actors. As part of Noh, aikyōgen is ''not'' comic – the manner (movements, way of speech) and costume are serious and dramatic. However, the actor is dressed in a kyōgen outfit and uses kyōgen-style language and delivery (rather than Noh language and delivery) – meaning simpler, less archaic language, delivered closer to a speaking voice – and thus can generally be understood by the audience, hence the role in explaining the play. Thus, while the costume and delivery are kyōgen-''style'' (kyōgen in ''form''), the clothing will be more elegant and the delivery less playful than in separate, comic kyōgen. Before and after aikyōgen, the kyōgen actor waits (kneeling in seiza) at the at the end of the bridge (''hashigakari''), close to the stage. The traditions of kyōgen are maintained primarily by family groups, especially the Izumi school and Ōkura school.


Elements

Kyōgen plays are invariably brief – often about 10 minutes, as traditionally performed between acts of Noh – and often contain only two or three roles, which are often
stock character A stock character, also known as a character archetype, is a fictional character in a work of art such as a novel, play, or a film whom audiences recognize from frequent recurrences in a particular literary tradition. There is a wide range of s ...
s. Notable ones include , , and . Movements and dialogue in kyōgen are typically very exaggerated, making the action of the play easy to understand. Elements of
slapstick Slapstick is a style of humor involving exaggerated physical activity that exceeds the boundaries of normal physical comedy. Slapstick may involve both intentional violence and violence by mishap, often resulting from inept use of props such ...
or
satire Satire is a genre of the visual, literary, and performing arts, usually in the form of fiction and less frequently non-fiction, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, often with the intent of shaming o ...
are present in most kyōgen plays. Some plays are parodies of actual
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or
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religious rituals; others are shorter, more lively, simplified versions of Noh plays, many of which are derived from folktales. As with Noh, jo-ha-kyū is a fundamental principle, which is particularly relevant for movement. As with Noh and kabuki, all kyōgen
actor An actor or actress is a person who portrays a character in a performance. The actor performs "in the flesh" in the traditional medium of the theatre or in modern media such as film, radio, and television. The analogous Greek term is (), lit ...
s, including those in female roles, are men. Female roles are indicated by a particular piece of attire, a – a long white sash, wrapped around the head, with the ends hanging down the front of the body and tucked into the belt, like symbolic braids; at the two points (either side of the head) where the sash changes from being wrapped around to hanging down, the sash sticks up, like two small horns. Similarly, actors play roles regardless of age – an old man may play the role of Tarō kaja opposite a young man playing master, for instance.


Costumes

Outfits are generally
kamishimo are a type of traditional Japanese clothing. Originally stemming from (), the trousers worn by members of the Chinese imperial court in the Sui and Tang dynasties, this style was adopted by the Japanese in the form of in the 6th centur ...
(Edo period outfit consisting of
kataginu are a type of traditional Japanese clothing. Originally stemming from (), the trousers worn by members of the Chinese imperial court in the Sui and Tang dynasties, this style was adopted by the Japanese in the form of in the 6th centu ...
top and hakama pants), with the master (if present) generally wearing nagabakama (long, trailing pants). Actors in kyōgen, unlike those in Noh, typically do not wear masks, unless the role is that of an animal (such as a tanuki or kitsune), or that of a god. Consequently, the masks of kyōgen are less numerous in variety than Noh masks. Both masks and costumes are simpler than those characteristic of Noh. Few props are used, and minimal or no stage sets. As with Noh, a fan is a common accessory.


Language

The language in kyōgen depends on the period, but much of the classic repertoire is in
Early Modern Japanese was the stage of the Japanese language after Middle Japanese and before Modern Japanese. It is a period of transition that shed many of the language's medieval characteristics and became closer to its modern form. The period spanned roughly ...
, reasonably analogous to Early Modern English (as in
Shakespeare William Shakespeare ( 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...
). The language is largely understandable to contemporary Japanese speakers, but sounds archaic, with pervasive use of the form rather than the form that is now used (see copula: Japanese). For example, when acknowledging a command, Tarō kaja often replies with , which in modern Japanese one uses . Further, some of the words and nuances cannot be understood by modern audience (without notes), as in Shakespeare. This contrasts with Noh, where the language is more difficult and generally not understandable to a contemporary audience. There are numerous set patterns – stock phrases and associated gestures, such as ''kashikomatte-gozaru'' (with a bow) and ''Kore wa mazu nanto itasō. Iya! Itashiyō ga gozaru.'' "So first, what to do. Aha! There is a way to do it.", performed while bowing and cocking head (indicating thought), followed by standing up with a start on ''Iya!'' Plays often begin with set phrases such as ''Kore wa kono atari ni sumai-itasu mono de gozaru.'' "This is the person who resides in this place." and (if featuring Tarō kaja) often end with Tarō kaja running off the stage yelling ''Yaru-mai zo, yaru-mai zo!'' "I won't do it, I won't do it!". Lines are delivered in a characteristic rhythmic, sing-song voice, and generally quite loudly. Pace, pitch, and volume are all varied for emphasis and effect.


Movements

As with Noh, which is performed on the same stage, and indeed many martial arts (such as
kendo is a modern Japanese martial art, descended from kenjutsu (one of the old Japanese martial arts, swordsmanship), that uses bamboo swords ( shinai) as well as protective armor ( bōgu). Today, it is widely practiced within Japan and has spre ...
and aikido) actors move via , sliding their feet, avoiding steps on the easily vibrated Noh stage. When walking, the body seeks to remain at the same level, without bobbing up or down. Plays also frequently feature stamping feet or otherwise hitting the ground (such as jumping) to take advantage of the stage. As with Noh, angle of gaze is important, and usually a flat gaze is used (avoiding looking down or up, which create a sad or fierce atmosphere, which is to be avoided). Characters usually face each other when speaking, but turn towards the audience when delivering a lengthy speech. Arms and legs are kept slightly bent. Unless involved in action, hands are kept on upper thighs, with fingers together and thumb tucked in – they move down to the sides of the knees when bowing.


Music

Kyōgen is performed to the accompaniment of music, especially the flute, drums, and gong. However, the emphasis of kyōgen is on dialogue and action, rather than on music or dance.


Space

Kyogen is generally performed on a Noh stage, as the stage is an important part of the play (the space, the reaction to stamps, the ease of sliding, etc.). It can, however, be performed in any space (particularly by amateur or younger performers), though if possible a Noh-like floor will be installed.


Komai

In addition to the kyōgen plays themselves, performances include short dances called . These are traditional dramatic dances (not comic), performed to a chanted accompaniment, and with varied themes. The movements are broadly similar to Noh dances. The often archaic language used in the lyrics and the chanted delivery means that these chants are often not understandable to a contemporary audience.


Kyōgen today

Today, kyōgen is performed and practiced regularly, both in major cities (especially Tokyo and Osaka) and throughout the country, and is featured on cultural television programs. In addition to the performances during Noh plays, it is also performed independently, generally in programs of three to five plays. New kyogen are written regularly, though few new plays enter the repertoire. Particularly significant is , written and directed by Tetsuji Takechi in 1953, during his post-Kabuki theater work. Based on a medieval French farce, this play became the first new ''kyōgen'' to enter the traditional repertoire in a century. In rare cases bilingual kyōgen or fusion of kyōgen with Western forms has been done. An early example is the group ''Mei-no-kai,'' consisting of kyōgen, Noh, and shingeki actors, who staged Beckett's '' Waiting for Godot'' in 1973; the kyōgen acting was best received. A notable example is the Noho Theatre group, based in Kyoto, under the direction of American Jonah Salz and primary acting by Akira Shigeyama. This group has performed a bilingual Japanese/English translation of ''Susugigawa'' termed ''The Henpecked Husband,'' together with works by Samuel Beckett, notably the mime '' Act Without Words I,'' performed by a kyōgen actor in Japanese theatrical style (first performed 1981). This latter features kyōgen movements and Japanese cultural adaptations – for example, the nameless character contemplates suicide not by holding scissors to his throat (as per stage directions), but to his stomach, as if contemplating hara-kiri. Unusually for a Beckett adaptation, which are usually strictly controlled by Beckett and his estate, this was presented to Beckett and met with his approval. The distinctive diction of kyōgen is also occasionally used in other media, with kyōgen actors working as voice actors. An example is the animated movie by Kōji Yamamura, based on " A Country Doctor" by
Franz Kafka Franz Kafka (3 July 1883 – 3 June 1924) was a German-speaking Bohemian novelist and short-story writer, widely regarded as one of the major figures of 20th-century literature. His work fuses elements of realism and the fantastic. It typ ...
, where the voices are performed by the Shigeyama family. As with Noh, many Japanese are familiar with kyōgen only through learning about it in school or television performances. A play frequently featured in textbooks is , where the servants Tarō-kaja and Jirō-kaja are entrusted with some sugar by their master, but told not to eat it, as it is poison; naturally, they eat it. As with Noh, many professional performers are born into a family, often starting performing at a young age, but others are not born into families and beginning practicing in high school or college. Unlike Noh drama or nihonbuyō dance, who earn their living primarily via teaching and support from underlings in the iemoto system, but similar to rakugo comedy, professional kyōgen players earn their living from performing (possibly supplemented by side jobs), and maintain an active touring schedule. Due to the limited repertoire (a classical canon, of which many are no longer performed due to being dated, and few new plays enter) and frequent performances, a professional kyōgen actor can be expected to be familiar with all roles in all plays in their school's repertoire, and to perform them with some regularity. While there are a number of kyōgen families, there are at present two leading families: the Nomura 野村 family of Tokyo (traditionally Edo region), and the Shigeyama 茂山 family of Kyoto (traditionally Kamigata region) of the Ōkura school, both of which are often featured performing on TV, appear in the news, and tour overseas, and have been involved in popularizing and some efforts at modernizing kyōgen. See also the
List of Living National Treasures of Japan (performing arts) The List of Living National Treasures of Japan (performing arts) contains all the individuals and groups certified as Living National Treasures by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of the government of Japan in the ...
, whose kyōgen members feature individuals from these families, among others.


Foreign actors

In the post-war period, foreigners have participated in kyōgen as amateur performers. A notable early example was the 1956 performance by scholar and translator
Donald Keene Donald Lawrence Keene (June 18, 1922 – February 24, 2019) was an American-born Japanese scholar, historian, teacher, writer and translator of Japanese literature. Keene was University Professor emeritus and Shincho Professor Emeritus of Japane ...
in the play with Tetsuji Takechi in the role of the
sake Sake, also spelled saké ( ; also referred to as Japanese rice wine), is an alcoholic beverage of Japanese origin made by fermenting rice that has been polished to remove the bran. Despite the name ''Japanese rice wine'', sake, and in ...
shop owner, before an audience including such prominent authors as Tanizaki, Yasunari Kawabata and Yukio Mishima. This is featured in his series of essays, ''Chronicles of My Life in the 20th Century'', and inspired the title of his anthology ''The Blue-Eyed Tarokaja: A Donald Keene Anthology.'' Today foreigners (resident in Japan, with sufficient Japanese skills) are able to practice with amateur troupes. In addition, since 1985, an intensive summer program (originally 6 weeks, now 3 weeks) in kyōgen for beginners has been run at the Kyoto Art Center, taught by Akira Shigeyama (of the Shigeyama family) and others, and organized by scholar of Japanese theater Jonah Salz.


Plays

There are a few hundred plays in the repertoire (about 180 in the Okura school), but many are now rarely performed, as the audience will not understand the jokes, or would deem them offensive (e.g., for making fun of a blind money-lender). Plays commonly studied and performed by beginners, due to brevity and simplicity, include , 舟船, 土筆, 以呂波, and .痿痢
''Shibiri'' "Cramps"
''Kuchimane'' in particular is frequently performed. Another well-known play, featured in textbooks, is , mentioned above. Another play is (''Kakiyamabushi'' or "Persimmon Mountain Hermit"), about an ascetic priest who hungers in the mountains; he uncovers and eats from a persimmon tree, which belongs to a farmer. The farmer catches him in the act and makes a fool out of the priest – getting the priest to pretend to be a crow, a monkey, and a large bird, causing him to fall from the tree. The priest later gets his revenge by chanting and summoning supernatural forces. But in the end, the farmer refuses to nurse the priest back to health.


See also

* Manzai


References


Sources

* * * * * *


External links


Noh & Kyogen — An Introduction
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kyogen Performing arts in Japan Theatre in Japan Noh