Krotoa
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The "!Oroǀõas" ("
Ward Ward may refer to: Division or unit * Hospital ward, a hospital division, floor, or room set aside for a particular class or group of patients, for example the psychiatric ward * Prison ward, a division of a penal institution such as a pris ...
-girl"), spelled in
Dutch Dutch commonly refers to: * Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands * Dutch people () * Dutch language () Dutch may also refer to: Places * Dutch, West Virginia, a community in the United States * Pennsylvania Dutch Country People E ...
as Krotoa, otherwise known by her Christian name Eva (c. 1643 – 29 July 1674), was a !Uriǁ'aeǀona translator working for the officials of the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) during the founding of the
Cape Colony The Cape Colony ( nl, Kaapkolonie), also known as the Cape of Good Hope, was a British Empire, British colony in present-day South Africa named after the Cape of Good Hope, which existed from 1795 to 1802, and again from 1806 to 1910, when i ...
. She is one of the most well written about women in South African history, with her name appearing in the journals of the United East India Company (VOC) from as early as 1652. She was the first woman mentioned by her
Khoi Khoekhoen (singular Khoekhoe) (or Khoikhoi in the former orthography; formerly also '' Hottentots''"Hottentot, n. and adj." ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, March 2018, www.oed.com/view/Entry/88829. Accessed 13 May 2018. Citing G. S. ...
name in early European records of the settlement at ǁHuiǃgaeb (
Cape Town Cape Town ( af, Kaapstad; , xh, iKapa) is one of South Africa's three capital cities, serving as the seat of the Parliament of South Africa. It is the legislative capital of the country, the oldest city in the country, and the second largest ...
).


Name

The name "Krotoa" was most likely not a name but a Dutch spelling of the designation !Oroǀõas (Khoekhoegowab spelling: !Goroǀgôas), referring to the fact that she was put under guardianship, either of her uncle
Autshumato Autshumato (or Autshumao; ''Herry'' or ''Harry de Strandloper'') was a Tribal chief, chief of the Khoikhoi Gorinhaikonas (or Goringhaicona) who worked as an Interpreting, interpreter for the Europeans in present-day, South Africa, Cape Town, Sout ...
(also known as Kx'aothumathub) or of
Jan van Riebeeck Johan Anthoniszoon "Jan" van Riebeeck (21 April 1619 – 18 January 1677) was a Dutch navigator and colonial administrator of the Dutch East India Company. Life Early life Jan van Riebeeck was born in Culemborg, as the son of a surgeon. He ...
and
Maria de la Quellerie Maria van Riebeeck (née de la Queillerie; 28 October 1629 – 2 November 1664) was a French Huguenot who was the first wife of Jan van Riebeeck, the Dutch colonial administrator and first commander of the settlement at the Cape. Life She ...
. Her actual birthname is unknown.


Biography


Early Life

"Krotoa" was born in 1643 as a member of the !Uriǁ’aeǀona ( Strandlopers) people. She was the niece of
Autshumao Autshumato (or Autshumao; ''Herry'' or ''Harry de Strandloper'') was a chief of the Khoikhoi Gorinhaikonas (or Goringhaicona) who worked as an interpreter for the Europeans in present-day, Cape Town, South Africa prior and during the establishme ...
, a
Khoi Khoekhoen (singular Khoekhoe) (or Khoikhoi in the former orthography; formerly also '' Hottentots''"Hottentot, n. and adj." ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, March 2018, www.oed.com/view/Entry/88829. Accessed 13 May 2018. Citing G. S. ...
chieftain and trader. At the age of twelve, she was taken to work in the household of
Jan van Riebeeck Johan Anthoniszoon "Jan" van Riebeeck (21 April 1619 – 18 January 1677) was a Dutch navigator and colonial administrator of the Dutch East India Company. Life Early life Jan van Riebeeck was born in Culemborg, as the son of a surgeon. He ...
, the first governor of the Cape colony. As a teenager, she learned
Dutch Dutch commonly refers to: * Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands * Dutch people () * Dutch language () Dutch may also refer to: Places * Dutch, West Virginia, a community in the United States * Pennsylvania Dutch Country People E ...
and
Portuguese Portuguese may refer to: * anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal ** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods ** Portuguese language, a Romance language *** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language ** Portu ...
and, like her uncle, worked as an interpreter for the Dutch who wanted to trade goods for cattle. "!Oroǀõas" received goods such as
tobacco Tobacco is the common name of several plants in the genus '' Nicotiana'' of the family Solanaceae, and the general term for any product prepared from the cured leaves of these plants. More than 70 species of tobacco are known, but the ...
,
brandy Brandy is a liquor produced by distilling wine. Brandy generally contains 35–60% alcohol by volume (70–120 US proof) and is typically consumed as an after-dinner digestif. Some brandies are aged in wooden casks. Others are coloured with ...
, bread, beads, copper, and iron for her services. In exchange, when she visited her family her Dutch masters expected her to return with cattle, horses, seed pearls, amber, tusks, and hides. Unlike her uncle, however, "!Oroǀõas" was able to obtain a higher position within the Dutch hierarchy as she additionally served as a trading agent, ambassador for a high ranking chief and peace negotiator in time of war. Her story exemplifies the initial dependency of the Dutch newcomers on the natives, who were able to provide reasonably reliable information about the local inhabitants. The initial arrival of the Dutch in April 1652 was not viewed as negative. Many Khoi people saw their arrival as an opportunity for personal gain as middlemen in the livestock trade; others saw them as potential allies against preexisting enemies. At the peak of her career as an interpreter, "Krotoa" held the belief that Dutch presence could bring benefits for both sides. There are multiple accounts of how "Krotoa" came to work in the household of Jan Van Riebeeck. One account says the Dutch forcefully kidnapped the child as a !oroǀõas, although no hard evidence confirms this account. She was taken in as a companion and as a servant to Riebeeck's wife and children. However, many authors and historians speculate that she most likely lived in a sexually abusive space, based on the fondness Van Riebeek showed for her in his journals. Circumstantial evidence supports the theory that at the time of the Dutch arrival, the girl was living with her uncle Autshumato (also known as Harry by the Dutch), the circumstantial evidence being that she showed consistent hostility to the !Uriǁ’aekua and, by association, to her own mother, who lived with them. In contrast Krotoa's fate and fortunes were closely aligned to those of her uncle Autshumato and to his clan known as the !Uriǁ'aeǀona. The ǃUriǁ'aeǀona people who were sedentary, non-pastoral hunter-gatherers are believed to be one of the first clans to make acquaintance with the Dutch people. Prior to the Dutch's arrival Autshumato served as a postal agent for passing ships of a number of countries. If the theory of !Oroǀõas having lived with her uncle is true, then her early service to the VOC may not have been as violent a transition as it was made out to be. It is believed that the birth of the first baby of chaplain/sick-healer Willem Barentssen Wijlant and his wife, coupled with the rapid spreading of a virulent disease in the settlement, sparked the initial negotiations to obtain services from a local girl. As Autshumato had a long history of working for Europeans, it is believed that the VOC first turned to Autshumato for negotiations. It is quite possible that Autshumato offered up his niece for servitude in order to better his standing with the VOC.


Baptism and marriage

On 3 May 1662 she was
baptize Baptism (from grc-x-koine, βάπτισμα, váptisma) is a form of ritual purification—a characteristic of many religions throughout time and geography. In Christianity, it is a Christian sacrament of initiation and adoption, almost inv ...
d by a visiting person, minister Petrus Sibelius, in the church inside the
Fort de Goede Hoop The Fort de Goede Hoop ('Fort of Good Hope') was the first military building to be erected in what is now Cape Town. It was built in 1652, and was in use until 1674 when it was superseded by the Castle of Good Hope. History The Fort was bu ...
. The witnesses were Roelof de Man and Pieter van der Stael. On 26 April 1664 she married a Danish surgeon by the name of Peter Havgard, whom the Dutch called Pieter van Meerhof. She was thereafter known as Eva van Meerhof She was the first
Khoikoi Khoekhoen (singular Khoekhoe) (or Khoikhoi in the former orthography; formerly also '' Hottentots''"Hottentot, n. and adj." ''OED Online'', Oxford University Press, March 2018, www.oed.com/view/Entry/88829. Accessed 13 May 2018. Citing G. S. ...
to marry according to Christian customs. There was a little party in the house of
Zacharias Wagenaer Zacharias Wagenaer (also known as ''Wagener'', ''Wagenaar'' and ''Wagner'') (10 May 1614 – 12 October 1668) was a German-born Dutch clerk, illustrator, merchant, member of the Court of Justice, opperhoofd of Deshima and the only German governo ...
. In May 1665, they left to the Cape and went to
Robben Island Robben Island ( af, Robbeneiland) is an island in Table Bay, 6.9 kilometres (4.3 mi) west of the coast of Bloubergstrand, north of Cape Town, South Africa. It takes its name from the Dutch word for seals (''robben''), hence the Dutch/Afrik ...
, where van Meerhof was appointed superintendent. The family briefly returned to the mainland in 1666 after the birth of Eva's third child, in order to baptise the baby. Van Meerhof was murdered in
Madagascar Madagascar (; mg, Madagasikara, ), officially the Republic of Madagascar ( mg, Repoblikan'i Madagasikara, links=no, ; french: République de Madagascar), is an island country in the Indian Ocean, approximately off the coast of East Africa ...
on 27 February 1668 on an expedition. After the death of her husband came the appointment of a new governor,
Zacharias Wagenaer Zacharias Wagenaer (also known as ''Wagener'', ''Wagenaar'' and ''Wagner'') (10 May 1614 – 12 October 1668) was a German-born Dutch clerk, illustrator, merchant, member of the Court of Justice, opperhoofd of Deshima and the only German governo ...
. Unlike the governor before him, he held extremely negative views toward the Khoi people, and because at this point the Dutch settlement was secure, he didn't find a need for Eva as a translator anymore.


Later years in exile

She returned to the mainland on 30 September 1668 with her three children. Suffering from
alcoholism Alcoholism is, broadly, any drinking of alcohol (drug), alcohol that results in significant Mental health, mental or physical health problems. Because there is disagreement on the definition of the word ''alcoholism'', it is not a recognize ...
, she left the Castle in the settlement to be with her family in their
kraal Kraal (also spelled ''craal'' or ''kraul'') is an Afrikaans and Dutch word, also used in South African English, for an enclosure for cattle or other livestock, located within a Southern African settlement or village surrounded by a fence of th ...
s. In February 1669 she was imprisoned unjustly for immoral behavior at the Castle and then
banished Banished may refer to: * ''Banished'' (TV series), a 2015 drama television series * ''Banished'' (film), a 2007 documentary * ''Banished'' (video game), a city-building strategy game by Shining Rock Software * Banished (Halo), an alien faction ...
to Robben Island. This was likely the result of the strict anti-alcohol laws the VOC had passed to govern the local population after they introduced higher proof European liquors. One of Van Riebeeck's nieces, Elizabeth Van Opdorp, adopted Krotoa's children after she was banished. She returned to the mainland on many occasions, only to find herself once more banished to Robben Island. In May 1673 she was allowed to baptise a child on the mainland. Three of her children survived. She died on 29 July 1674 in the Cape and was buried on 30 September 1674 in the Castle in the Fort. However, roughly a hundred years later, her bones were removed to an unmarked grave.


Legacy

Pieternella and Salamon, Eva's two youngest children from her marriage to van Meerhof, were taken to
Mauritius Mauritius ( ; french: Maurice, link=no ; mfe, label=Mauritian Creole, Moris ), officially the Republic of Mauritius, is an island nation in the Indian Ocean about off the southeast coast of the African continent, east of Madagascar. It incl ...
in 1677. Pieternella, who was known as Pieternella Meerhof or Pieternella van die Kaap, later married Daniel Zaaijman, a VOC vegetable farmer from
Vlissingen Vlissingen (; zea, label=Zeelandic, Vlissienge), historically known in English as Flushing, is a Municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality and a city in the southwestern Netherlands on the former island of Walcheren. With its strategic l ...
. They had four sons and four daughters, one of whom was named Eva, and the family moved back to the Cape in 1706. Their granddaughter, Engela Catharina Zaaijman, married Abraham Peltzer Jr, son of Abraham Peltzer Sr, a VOC soldier from Hamburg, Germany and Elizabeth van den Berg. Krotoa's descendants would later include the Peltzers, the Krugers, the Steenkamps and other
Afrikaner Afrikaners () are a South African ethnic group descended from Free Burghers, predominantly Dutch settlers first arriving at the Cape of Good Hope in the 17th and 18th centuries.Entry: Cape Colony. ''Encyclopædia Britannica Volume 4 Part 2: ...
families. After her death, Krotoa's story would not be deeply explored for nearly two and a half centuries. Instead attention was mostly put on white European women who came to South Africa on missionary expeditions. It was not until after the 1920s that her story become a part of South African history. In 2016, on the anniversary of the 350th commemoration of the Castle, descendants of Krotoa conducted a ceremony to return her spirit to the Castle in the Fort.


Cultural references

The novel ''Eilande'' by Dan Sleigh (1938), translated from
Afrikaans Afrikaans (, ) is a West Germanic language that evolved in the Dutch Cape Colony from the Dutch vernacular of Holland proper (i.e., the Hollandic dialect) used by Dutch, French, and German settlers and their enslaved people. Afrikaans gra ...
by André Brink (in Dutch: 'Stemmen uit zee'/in English: 'Islands'), describes the lives of Krotoa and her daughter Pieternella from the viewpoints of seven men who knew them. As late as 1983, under the name of Eva, she was still known in South Africa as a caution against
miscegenation Miscegenation ( ) is the interbreeding of people who are considered to be members of different races. The word, now usually considered pejorative, is derived from a combination of the Latin terms ''miscere'' ("to mix") and ''genus'' ("race") ...
. In 1990, South African poet and author
Karen Press Karen Press (born 1956) is a South African poet and translator. She was born in Cape Town, and lives in Sea Point, Cape Town, Sea Point. Press is a full-time writer and editor, having published ten collections of poetry, a film script, short sto ...
wrote a poem entitled "Krotoa's Story" that attempted to reimagine Krotoa's life, emotions, and conflicting desires partly from her perspective. The poem was based on an earlier children's story by Press entitled ''Krotoa'', which was created as part of an educational initiative by the South African Council for Higher Education designed to inform schoolchildren about colonization from the perspective of indigenous South Africans. In 1995, South African performer Antoinette Pienaar created a one-woman play entitled ''Krotoa''. The work was first performed at the Little Karoo National Arts Festival, where it was awarded the “Herrie” prize. The play is unique in its depiction and memorialization of Krotoa as a mother of the nation, a characterization which had been previously rejected by white South Africans. In 2000 Dalene Matthee wrote a novel, "Pieternella van die Kaap", based on her thorough research of diaries and documents on Eva Krotoa and Pieternella van Meerhoff in archives and museums as well as consulting Drs. Dan Sleigh and Helena Scheffler. In her 2005 essay "Malintzin, Pocahontas, and Krotoa: Indigenous Women and Myth Models of the Atlantic World", Professor Pamela Scully compared Krotoa to
Malintzin Marina or Malintzin ( 1500 – 1529), more popularly known as La Malinche , a Nahua woman from the Mexican Gulf Coast, became known for contributing to the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519–1521), by acting as an interpreter, advi ...
and
Pocahontas Pocahontas (, ; born Amonute, known as Matoaka, 1596 – March 1617) was a Native American woman, belonging to the Powhatan people, notable for her association with the colonial settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. She was the daughter of ...
, two other women of the same time period that were born in different areas of the world (Malintzin in
Mesoamerica Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in southern North America and most of Central America. It extends from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica. W ...
, Pocahontas in
colonial Virginia The Colony of Virginia, chartered in 1606 and settled in 1607, was the first enduring English colonial empire, English colony in North America, following failed attempts at settlement on Newfoundland (island), Newfoundland by Sir Humphrey GilbertG ...
). Scully argues that all three of these women had very similar experiences in the colonialist system despite being born in different regions. She argues that Krotoa's life helps demonstrate the significance of indigenous women in the founding of the Atlantic World. Scully also argues that the lives of Krotoa, Pocahontas and Malintzin show the universality of the way that indigenous people were treated in emerging colonial systems, as well as the way their experiences have been flattened by colonial origin narratives. In 2017 a dramatic feature film directed by Roberta Durrant about Krotoa's life, titled "Krotoa", was released in South Africa.


See also

*
History of Cape Town The area known today as Cape Town has no written history before it was first mentioned by Portuguese explorer Bartholomeu Dias in 1488. The German anthropologist Theophilus Hahn recorded that the original name of the area was ', , Hui !Gai ...
*
Gquma Bessie, otherwise known as Gquma, was a South African traditional aristocrat. As the Great Wife of Paramount Chief Sango of the Tshomane, she served as a queen of the Mpondo people. Life A famous figure in South African history, Bessie was a whi ...


References


Sources

* *


External links


Robben Island Museum page
* ttp://www.e-family.co.za/ffy/RemarkableWriting/UL021Krotoa.pdf In a Kind of Custody; For Eva's sake ... Who speaks for KROTOA?, by Mansell G. Upham, in Uprooted Lives, No.21br>Camissa People: Profiles of Camissa resisters
{{DEFAULTSORT:Krotoa History of South Africa 1640s births 1674 deaths People from Cape Town Khoikhoi 17th-century translators 17th-century women