Kavousi Vronda (also Vronda; el, Βροντάς or Βρόντας) is an archaeological site in eastern

Crete Crete ( el, Κρήτη, translit=, Modern: , Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the 88th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus, and ...

Greece Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders with ...

, located about 1.25 km south of the modern village of

Kavousi Kavousi is a historic village in the municipality of Ierapetra in the prefecture of Lasithi in eastern Crete. "Kavousi" in the Cretan dialect means "water source" (Greek: Πηγή). The village is situated 19 km (11.8 mi) northeast of Ie ...

, a historic village in the municipality of

Ierapetra Ierapetra ( el, Ιεράπετρα, lit=sacred stone; ancient name: ) is a Greece, Greek town and municipality located on the southeast coast of Crete. History The town of Ierapetra (in the local dialect: Γεράπετρο ''Gerapetro'') is loc ...

in the prefecture of

Lasithi Lasithi ( el, Λασίθι) is the easternmost regional unit on the island of Crete, to the east of Heraklion. Its capital is Agios Nikolaos, the other major towns being Ierapetra and Sitia. The mountains include the Dikti in the west and the Thr ...

It is situated in the northern foothills of the

Thripti Thrypti ( el, Θρυπτή) is a mountain range in Lasithi in eastern Crete, Greece. It trends to the northeast from Ierapetra in the southwest in the direction of Sitia. However, it only goes half-way in that direction. The rest of the distance ...

Mountains overlooking the Gulf of Mirabello, at an elevation of 427 m above sea level. The ancient name of the site is unknown. "Vronda" ("Thunder Hill"), as it was called by the pioneering archaeologist Harriet Boyd awesat the beginning of the 20th century, is a local toponym; the entire ridge and surrounding area are also referred to as "Xerambela" ("Dry Vineyards"; el, Ξεράμπελα). Most of the visible remains on the site belong to a "

Dark Age The ''Dark Ages'' is a term for the Early Middle Ages, or occasionally the entire Middle Ages, in Western Europe after the fall of the Western Roman Empire that characterises it as marked by economic, intellectual and cultural decline. The conce ...

" settlement dating to the Late Minoan IIIC period (c. 1170–1050 BCE) and a slightly later, Early

Iron Age The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three-age division of the prehistory and protohistory of humanity. It was preceded by the Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) and the Bronze Age (Chalcolithic). The concept has been mostly appl ...

cemetery (c. 1050–675 BCE).

History of the site

Investigations by the Kavousi Project have recovered evidence of human activity on the Vronda ridge as early as the Final Neolithic period (4th millennium BCE) and continuing, with interruptions, through the end of the

Bronze Age The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second pri ...

(3rd and 2nd millennia BCE) and transition to the

(1st millennium BCE). Later remains attest to limited occupation and use of the site during the Venetian (13th–17th centuries C.E.), Ottoman (17th–19th centuries C.E.) and even

Modern Modern may refer to: History * Modern history ** Early Modern period ** Late Modern period *** 18th century *** 19th century *** 20th century ** Contemporary history * Moderns, a faction of Freemasonry that existed in the 18th century Phil ...

(early 20th century C.E) periods. * The earliest traces of human activity at the site date to the Final Neolithic period, and consist of two stone

celts The Celts (, see pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples () are. "CELTS location: Greater Europe time period: Second millennium B.C.E. to present ancestry: Celtic a collection of Indo-European peoples. "The Celts, an ancien ...

and several fragments of pottery. Although not found in primary contexts or undisturbed strata, the amount of pottery suggests some type of small-scale habitation (e.g., a farmhouse, 1-2 isolated dwellings, etc.) at Vronda during this period. * Occupation of the site during the Prepalatial (Early Minoan I-II) and Late Prepalatial (Early Minoan III–Middle Minoan IA) periods is attested primarily by substantial amounts of ceramic material deposited as fill during the construction of later buildings. Although no architectural remains are preserved from the Prepalatial period, the types and quantities of ceramic vessels suggest that feasting and drinking rituals may have taken place at the site in Early Minoan II. Petrographic analysis indicates that the some of the pottery was not produced locally, but may have come from the western

Isthmus of Ierapetra The Isthmus of Ierapetra (Ισθμός της Ιεράπετρας) is a strip of land on the Greek island of Crete which connects the easternmost municipality, Siteia, to the rest of the island. Its name comes from the largest settlement, Iera ...

, demonstrating that the Prepalatial inhabitants of Vronda participated in a wide network of exchange with other sites in eastern Crete. Far less diagnostic material that could be assigned to the Early Minoan III–Middle Minoan IA period was recovered; this may indicate a major change in the size and nature of the settlement, perhaps related to a restructuring of settlements and a disbursement of population to smaller sites in the area. * The earliest preserved architectural remains date to the Protopalatial period (Middle Minoan IB–Middle Minoan IIB), when a substantial building (Building P) was constructed on the eastern side of the summit; a Minoan ''kernos'' (or cupule stone - a flat slab with multiple small, round depressions arranged in a circular or oval pattern) found in a partially paved courtyard nearby to the south may date from the same era. Ceramic remains associated with Building P suggest elite feasting and drinking activities, while a clay ''nodulus'' (a token made from a small lump of clay with a decorative impression on one side) implies some type of administrative function. Evidence for other Protopalatial structures consists of a fragmentary wall on the eastern slope and several deposits of pottery used in later fills on the summit, the southeast slope, and the west slope. * Evidence for occupation during the Neopalatial period (Middle Minoan III–Late Minoan I) consists of only a few walls and a pit on the summit, and substantial deposits of Neopalatial pottery used in later leveling fills. The site apparently went out of use at the end of the Neopalatial period (Late Minoan IB); most of the architecture may have been dismantled or destroyed when the site was re-inhabited in the Late Minoan IIIC period. * In the Late Minoan IIIC period, the site was occupied by a small settlement covering an area of at least 0.50

hectares The hectare (; SI symbol: ha) is a non-SI metric unit of area equal to a square with 100-metre sides (1 hm2), or 10,000 m2, and is primarily used in the measurement of land. There are 100 hectares in one square kilometre. An acre is ab ...

. Established only slightly later in time than either the Late Minoan IIIC habitation at nearby Kavousi Kastro or the much larger settlement at

Karphi Karfi (also Karphi, el, Καρφί) is an archaeological site high up in the Dikti Mountains in eastern Crete, Greece. The ancient name of the site is unknown; "Karfi" ("the nail") is a local toponym for the prominent knob of limestone that mar ...

above the

Lasithi Plateau The Lasithi Plateau ( el, Οροπέδιο Λασιθίου, ''Oropedio Lasithiou''), sometimes spelt Lassithi Plateau, is a high endorheic plateau, located in the Lasithi regional unit in eastern Crete, Greece. Since the 1997 Kapodistrias reform, ...

, the Vronda settlement eventually consisted of about 20 houses, a large building on the summit that may have been the home of the community leader and a place for ritual feasting and drinking ceremonies (Building A-B), a freestanding temple or shrine of the "Goddess with Upraised Arms" (

Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...

: θεά μεθ’ υψωμένων χειρών) (Building G), and a kiln. The settlement may have been used for four generations (or around 120 years) before it was abandoned at the very end of the Late Minoan IIIC period. Although it is unknown why the inhabitants left or where they went, it is likely that at least some of them moved up to the higher settlement at

Kavousi Kastro Kavousi Kastro (also Kastro; el, Κάστρο) is an archaeological site in eastern Crete, Greece, about 1.4 km southeast of the modern village of Kavousi, a historic village in the municipality of Ierapetra in the prefecture of Lasithi. Si ...

, which seems to have become the dominant site in the Kavousi region from the 11th through the 8th centuries BCE. * The abandoned settlement was subsequently used as a burial ground, possibly by the descendants of the original villagers in an attempt to maintain group identity or legitimize territorial claims based on ancestry. During the Subminoan (11th century BCE),

Protogeometric The Protogeometric style (or "Proto-Geometric") is a style of Ancient Greek pottery led by Athens produced between roughly 1030 and 900 BCE, in the first period of the Greek Dark Ages. After the collapse of the Mycenaean-Minoan Palace culture ...

(10th century BCE), and early Geometric periods (9th century BCE), inhumation burials were placed in small, stone-built, corbelled tholos tombs, generally located at the northern and northwestern edges of the former settlement. Eleven tholos tombs (designated Vronda I–XI) are known, but only two (Vronda IV and IX) were found unrobbed. In the Late

Geometric Geometry (; ) is, with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It is concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is ca ...

(8th century BCE) and Early Orientalizing (7th century BCE) periods, cremation burials were placed in stone-built enclosures (cist graves), often within the rooms of the long-abandoned and partially collapsed houses of the Late Minoan IIIC settlement. Approximately 30 cist graves were discovered by the Kavousi Project. Evidence suggests that the cremations took place on a pyre built within each enclosure and the cremated remains were left in situ. Since the graves were used on multiple occasions for men, women, and children (including infants and fetuses), they most likely represent family burial spaces. The cemetery at Vronda went out of use completely in the Early Orientalizing period. * The site seems to have been largely uninhabited from the 7th century BCE until the Venetian period (13th–17th century CE), when small buildings were constructed on the summit (Building R) and southern slope (Building F). From the same period is a partially excavated building ("Xerambela farmstead") with associated ''alonia'' (circular

threshing floor Threshing (thrashing) was originally "to tramp or stamp heavily with the feet" and was later applied to the act of separating out grain by the feet of people or oxen and still later with the use of a flail. A threshing floor is of two main type ...

s) some 200 meters to the north of the Vronda summit. Later periods are represented only by few ceramic remains or miscellaneous artifacts.

Archaeological research

The site was initially explored by the American archaeologist Harriet Boyd awesin 1900, "as representative of the

American School of Classical Studies at Athens , native_name_lang = Greek , image = American School of Classical Studies at Athens.jpg , image_size = , image_alt = , caption = The ASCSA main building as seen from Mount Lykavittos , latin_name = , other_name = , former_name = , mo ...

to excavate in the name of the Cretan Government." Boyd uncovered a large "house" with storerooms (now designated Building A-B) on the summit, an "excellent stretch of wall" (now called the East Terrace Wall), and eight small tholos tombs (now labeled Vronda I–VIII) on the north and northwest sides of the ridges. Another tholos tomb (now designated Vronda IX) was discovered in 1951 by a local landowner, George Sekadakis, who deposited the antiquities with the local authorities. Archaeological investigations were resumed in 1974 by Geraldine C. Gesell (

University of Tennessee The University of Tennessee (officially The University of Tennessee, Knoxville; or UT Knoxville; UTK; or UT) is a public land-grant research university in Knoxville, Tennessee. Founded in 1794, two years before Tennessee became the 16th state, ...

) and Leslie Preston Day (

College of Wooster The College of Wooster is a private liberal arts college in Wooster, Ohio. Founded in 1866 by the Presbyterian Church as the University of Wooster, it has been officially non-sectarian since 1969 when ownership ties with the Presbyterian Church ...

; later,

Wabash College Wabash College is a private liberal arts men's college in Crawfordsville, Indiana. Founded in 1832 by several Dartmouth College graduates and Midwestern leaders, it enrolls nearly 900 students. The college offers an undergraduate liberal arts cur ...

), who visited Vronda as part of an informal survey of sites in the area. In 1978, Gesell and Day were joined by William D.E. Coulson (

University of Minnesota The University of Minnesota, formally the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, (UMN Twin Cities, the U of M, or Minnesota) is a public university, public Land-grant university, land-grant research university in the Minneapolis–Saint Paul, Tw ...

; later,

) to establish the Kavousi Project, which began with mapping of the site, a study of material found by Boyd and Sekadakis and housed in the Herakleion Archaeological Museum and the Archaeological Collection of Ierapetra (1979), cleaning of the tholos tombs (1981), a topographical plan, cleaning and drawing of architectural remains on the Vronda ridge (1983–1984), and two study seasons (1985–1986). Full-scale excavations under the auspices of the

and the 24th Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities of the

Greek Archaeological Service The Greek Archaeological Service ( el, Αρχαιολογική Υπηρεσία) is a state service, under the auspices of the Greek Ministry of Culture, responsible for the oversight of all archaeological excavations, museums and the country's ar ...

, and with permission from the

Greek Ministry of Culture The Ministry of Culture and Sports ( el, Υπουργείο Πολιτισμού και Αθλητισμού) is the government department of Greece entrusted with preserving the country's cultural heritage, promoting the arts, and overseeing sp ...

, were conducted from 1987–1990 and in 1992, followed by site conservation from 1993 to 1996, and study from 1990 to 2003.Gesell, Day, and Coulson 1983; Day, Klein, and Turner 2009, p. 3 Today, select antiquities discovered by the Kavousi Project at Vronda are on display in the

Archaeological Museum of Agios Nikolaos The Archaeological Museum of Agios Nikolaos is a museum in Agios Nikolaos, Crete, Greece Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and ...

and in the Archaeological Collection of Ierapetra. Other artifacts, excavation notebooks, and original drawings and plans, are housed in the Institute for Aegean Prehistory Study Center for East Crete (INSTAP-SCEC) in

Pacheia Ammos Pacheia Ammos ( el, Παχειά Άμμος) is a village in the municipality of Ierapetra on the island of Crete in Greece. It is located on the north coast of the island, 15 km to the north of the city of Ierapetra, at the fork in the road ...

in eastern Crete, Greece.

References

Bibliography

Panorama of Vronda ridge from southeast 2003

Boyd, Harriet A. (1901), 'Excavations at Kavousi, Crete, in 1900', ''American Journal of Archaeology'', Vol. 5, No. 2. (Apr. - Jun., 1901), pp. 125-157.
* Day, Leslie P. (2011), "Appropriating the Past: Early Iron Age Mortuary Practices at Kavousi, Crete," in ''The ‘Dark Ages’ Revisited: Proceedings of the International Conference in Memory of William D.E. Coulson at the University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece, June 14–17, 2007'', edited by A. Mazarakis Ainian, pp. 745–757. Volos, Greece: University of Thessaly Press. .
Day, Leslie P., William D.E. Coulson, and Geraldine C. Gesell (1986), 'Kavousi 1983-84: The Settlement at Vronda', ''Hesperia'' Vol. 55, No. 4 (Oct. 1986), pp. 335-387

Day, Leslie P., Heidi Dierckx, Kimberly Flint-Hamilton, Geraldine C. Gesell, Kevin T. Glowacki, Nancy L. Klein, David S. Reese, and Lynn M. Snyder (2016), ''Kavousi IIC: The LM IIIC Settlement at Vronda. The Specialist Reports'' (Prehistory Monographs 52). Philadelphia, PA: INSTAP Academic Press, 2016.
.
Day, Leslie P., and Kevin T. Glowacki (2012), ''Kavousi IIB: The Late Minoan IIIC Settlement at Vronda. The Buildings on the Periphery'' (Prehistory Monographs 39), Philadelphia, PA: INSTAP Academic Press, 2012.

Day, Leslie P., Nancy L. Klein, and Lee Ann Turner (2009), ''Kavousi IIA: The Late Minoan IIIC Settlement at Vronda. The Houses on the Summit'' (Prehistory Monographs 26), Philadelphia, PA: INSTAP Academic Press, 2009.

Day, Leslie P., and Lynn M. Snyder (2004), "The ‘Big House’ at Vronda and the ‘Great House’ at Karphi: Evidence for Social Structure in LM IIIC Crete," in ''Crete Beyond the Palaces. Proceedings of the Crete 2000 Conference'' (Prehistory Monographs 10), edited by Leslie P. Day, Margaret S. Mook, and James P. Muhly, pp. 63–80. Philadelphia, PA: INSTAP Academic Press.
.
Day, Peter M., Louise Joyner, Vassilis Kilikoglou, and Geraldine C. Gesell (2006), 'Goddesses, Snake Tubes, and Plaques: Analysis of Ceramic Ritual Objects from the LM IIIC Shrine at Kavousi,' ''Hesperia'', Vol. 75, No. 2 (Apr. - Jun., 2006), pp. 137-175.
* Gaignerot-Driessen, Florence. (2016), ''De l'occupation postpalatiale à la cité-état grecque: le cas du Mirambello (Crète)'' (Aegaeum 40). Leuven-Liège, 2016. * Gesell, Geraldine C. (1999), "Ritual Kalathoi in the Shrine at Kavousi," in ''MELETEMATA: Studies in Aegean Archaeology Presented to Malcolm H. Wiener as He Enters His 65th Year I–III'' (Aegaeum 20), edited by P.P Betancourt, V. Karageorghis, R. Laffineur, and W-D Niemeier, pp. 283–287. Liège and Austin, 1999
Gesell, Geraldine.C. (2004), "From Knossos to Kavousi: The Popularizing of the Minoan Palace Goddess," in ΧΑΡΙΣ: ''Essays in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr'' (Hesperia Suppl. 33), edited by Anne P. Chapin, pp. 131–150. Princeton, PA: American School of Classical Studies at Athens.

Gesell, Geraldine C. (2012) "The Kavousi Goddesses with Up-raised Hands: New Information on Technology," in ''PHILISTOR: Studies in Honor of Costis Davaras'' (Prehistory Monographs 36), edited by E. Mantzourani and P. Betancourt, pp. 43–49. Philadelphia, PA: INSTAP Academic Press, 2012.

Gesell, Geraldine C., William D.E. Coulson, and Leslie P. Day (1991), 'Excavations at Kavousi, Crete, 1988', ''Hesperia'' Vol. 60, No. 2 (Apr. 1991), pp. 145-177.

Gesell, Geraldine C., Leslie P. Day, and William D.E. Coulson (1983), 'Excavations and Survey at Kavousi, 1978-1981', ''Hesperia'' Vol. 52, No. 4 (Oct. 1983), pp. 389-420.

Gesell, Geraldine C., Leslie P. Day, and William D.E. Coulson (1988), 'Excavations at Kavousi, Crete, 1987', ''Hesperia'' Vol. 57, No. 4 (Oct. 1988), pp. 279-301.

Gesell, Geraldine C., Leslie P. Day, and William D.E. Coulson (1995), 'Excavations at Kavousi, Crete, 1989 and 1990', ''Hesperia'' Vol. 64, No. 1 (Jan. 1995), pp. 67-120.

Glowacki, Kevin T. (2004), "Household Analysis in Dark Age Crete," in ''Crete Beyond the Palaces. Proceedings of the Crete 2000 Conference'' (Prehistory Monographs 10), edited by Leslie P. Day, Margaret S. Mook, and James P. Muhly, pp. 125–136. Philadelphia, PA: INSTAP Academic Press.
.
Glowacki, Kevin T. (2007) "House, Household, and Community at LM IIIC Vronda," in ''Building Communities: House, Settlement and Society in the Aegean and Beyond'' (British School at Athens Studies 15), edited by R. Westgate, N. Fisher, and J. Whitley, pp. 129-139. London: British School at Athens.
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Glowacki, Kevin T., and Nancy L. Klein (2011), "Analysis of Domestic Architecture in Dark Age Crete: The LM IIIC Settlement at Vronda, Kavousi," in ''The ‘Dark Ages’ Revisited: Proceedings of the International Conference in Memory of William D.E. Coulson at the University of Thessaly, Volos, Greece, June 14–17, 2007'', edited by A. Mazarakis Ainian, pp. 451–462. Volos, Greece: University of Thessaly Press.
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Haggis, Donald C. (2005), ''Kavousi I: The Archaeological Survey of the Kavousi Region'' (Prehistory Monographs 16), Philadelphia, PA: INSTAP Academic Press, 2005.

Klein, Nancy L. (2004), "The Architecture of the Late Minoan IIIC Shrine (Building G) at Vronda, Kavousi," in ''Crete Beyond the Palaces. Proceedings of the Crete 2000 Conference'' (Prehistory Monographs 10), edited by Leslie P. Day, Margaret S. Mook, and James P. Muhly, pp. 91–101. Philadelphia, PA: INSTAP ACADEMIC PRESS.
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Liston, Maria A. (2007), ‘Secondary Cremation Burials at Kavousi Vronda, Crete: Symbolic Representation in Mortuary Practice,’ ''Hesperia'', Vol. 76, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 2007), pp. 57-71.
* McEnroe, John C. (2010), ''Architecture of Minoan Crete. Constructing Identity in the Aegean Bronze Age'', Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2010. .
Morris, Michael W. (2002), ''Soil Science and Archaeology: Three Test Cases from Minoan Crete'' (Prehistory Monographs 4), Philadelphia, PA: INSTAP Academic Press, 2002.
*Wallace, Saro (2010), ''Ancient Crete: From Successful Collapse to Democracy's Alternative, Twelfth to Fifth Centuries BC'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. .

External links

{{commonscat, Archaeological site of Kavousi Vronda *Dafedar, Kashif, Kevin T. Glowacki, and Nancy L. Klein. 2009.
Vronda Reconstruction - Preliminary (Nov. 2009)
" YouTube video (00:55) with partial fly-through of the digital reconstruction of the Late Minoan IIIC settlement, beginning with Building I-O-N on the western slope and circling the communal shrine (Building G). Posted by Kashif Dafedar on Nov. 7, 2009. *Dafedar, Kashif, Kevin T. Glowacki, and Nancy L. Klein. 2012.
Vronda Reconstruction - May 2012.
YouTube video (01:00) with 360 degree flyover of the rough 3D rendering of the digital reconstruction of the archaeological site of Kavousi Vronda in eastern Crete, Greece. Posted by Kashif Dafedar on May 6, 2012. *Day, Leslie, P. (2011).
A Tale of Two 'Cities' in Dark Age Crete: Karphi and Kavousi
" YouTube video (50:52) of a lecture for the

Archaeological Institute of America The Archaeological Institute of America (AIA) is North America's oldest society and largest organization devoted to the world of archaeology. AIA professionals have carried out archaeological fieldwork around the world and AIA has established re ...

given at the

University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology The University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology—commonly known as the Penn Museum—is an archaeology and anthropology museum at the University of Pennsylvania. It is located on Penn's campus in the University City neighb ...

on April 13, 2011. Posted by Penn Museum on Oct 6, 2011 Minoan sites in Crete Bronze Age sites in Greece Dorian Crete Former populated places in Greece Geography of ancient Crete Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Crete Iron Age sites in Greece Populated places in ancient Greece Ierapetra