Names
The language is known by several names besides ''Kalaw Lagaw Ya'', most of which (including ''Kalaw Lagaw Ya'') are names of dialects, spelling variants, dialect variants and the like — and include translations of the English terms, ''Western Island Language'' and ''Central Island Language'': One term used by Eastern Islanders and neighbouring Papuans for Kala Lagaw Ya is ''Yagar Yagar'', from the word ''yagar'' (''yá'' 'speech, etc.' + ''gár'' 'sympathy clitic' ('dear', 'please', etc.), often used by Western and Central Islanders in speech to show a sympathetic or nostalgic frame of mind. In literature on the language the abbreviations KLY (Kalaw Lagaw Ya), KKY (Kalau Kawau Ya), KulY (Kulkalgau Ya), MY (Muwalgau Ya) and KY (Kaiwaligau Ya) are often used as abbreviations. The name ''Mabuiag'' , in English pronounced , is fairly widespread as a name for the language, this having been established by the Cambridge Expedition to Torres Strait, whose main research on the language was with Mabuiag material. Though the preferred term in English in Academia for some time was ''Kala Lagaw Ya'', according to , the form was always regarded as "colloquial" by native speakers. In a High Court decision on 7 August 2013, the decision was taken to officially term the language ''Kalau Lagau Ya'', using the formal form. When speaking to each other, speakers generally refer to the language as ''Langgus'' 'language' or use phrases such as KLY/KulY ''ngalpudh muli'', MY-KY ''ngalpudh/ngalpadh muli'', KKY ''ngalpadh muliz'' "speak(s) our language", e.g. KLY/KulY ''ngalpudh muuli, thanamunungu tidailai!'', MY-KY ''ngalpudh/ngalpadh muuli, thanamuningu tidailai!'', KKY ''ngalpadh muli, thanamulngu tidaile!'' 'Speak in our language so they don't understand!'. ''Ngalpudh/ngalpadh'' literally means 'like us'. The construction ''X-dh mula+i-'' 'speak X-like' is used to refer to speaking in a language, e.g. KKY ''markaidh muliz'' 'speak nEnglish','' zapanisadh muliz'' 'speak nJapanese', ''dhaudhalgadh muliz'' 'speak nPapuan', ''mœyamadh muliz'' 'speak nMeriam Mìr', ''thanamudh muliz'' 'speak like them, speak ntheir language'. It is otherwise common for speakers to use nominal phrases like KLY/KulY ''ngalpun ya'', MY-KY ''ngalpun/ngalpan ya'', KKY ''ngalpan ya'' 'our language' to refer to the language when speaking to each other.Geographic distribution
Kalau Lagau Ya is spoken on the western and central islands of Torres Strait, betweenClassification and external comparison
The language is classified as being part of thePersonal pronouns
A comparison of the Kalaw Lagaw Ya, Meriam Mìr, Kiwai and Uradhi personal pronouns show similarities and differences in typology. In comparison to Uradhi, Kalaw Lagaw Ya has an archaic typology — or, rather, Uradhi has innovated, having lost the Common Australian 1, 2 and 3 plurals. Kiwai does not have 1–2 pronouns, while Meriam Mìr does not have a dual and trial/paucal set of pronouns which correspond to its verb system. The Kalaw Lagaw Ya system, like that of Uradhi, is Australian: ''Note that except for Meriam Mìr, the Trans Fly languages also have two-gender masculine-feminine systems, though not marked on the pronouns themselves.'' However, even though the system has no real surprises for Australian linguistics, it is clear that Kalaw Lagaw Ya has innovated in the 1st and 2nd pronouns, which have the following CA origins: * CA *ngali 'we, inclusive' > ''ngœy'' tem: ''ngœlmu-'' (old style singing ''ngalimu-, ngalemu-''), ''ngœimu-'''we, exclusive'; and with stem extensions ''ngalpa'' 'you and I/we' (old-style singing ''ngalipa/ngalepa''), ''ngalbai/ngalbe'' 'we (exclusive)', (old style singing ''ngalebai/ngalibai'') * CA *ngana+pulV 'we, exclusive dual' > ''ngœba'' 'you and I'. The 2nd person dual and plural pronouns are based on forms that literally mean 'you ' (''ngipel'') and 'you-they' (''ngitha a'), in much the same way as the demonstratives mark the dual and plural (see further below in Nominal Morphology).Pre-historic overview
An examination of the various sub-systems (vocabulary, syntax, morphology) suggests the following: ;Australian (Paman) Some basic and abstract vocabulary, all personal pronouns (inc. ''who'' and ''what/which''), some verbs. Some grammar, such as nominal and verb morphology (subject, agent, object, genitive, -l locative, -ka dative, perfective attainative, imperfective, -i/-iz(i) perfective active. These typological categories also exist in the Trans-Fly languages; the forms in Kalaw Lagaw Ya are clearly Australian. ;Papuan (Trans-Fly) Some basic and abstract vocabulary, some verbs. Some grammar, such as verb number and different stems for different number forms of some verbs. Use of state/movement verbs as existential and stative 'be' verbs. Two non-personal pronominals: ''naag/naga'' 'how', ''namuith'' 'when' (both in KKY, the dialect of the islands off the Papuan coast). ;Austronesian Some basic vocabulary, terminology dealing with agriculture, canoes, the weather, the sky and the sea, some abstract nouns, some verbs. Possibly some grammar in the form of function words, such as ''waadh'' (KKY ''waaza'') 'existential emphasis' (i.e. 'it is true that ... '), Proto Oceanic Austronesian *waDa 'existential'. The Australian word forms and structure found in Kalaw Lagaw Ya appear to be retentions, i.e. inherited; the original Australian forms appear to be unchanged at the core level. This suggests that the language is not aOutside influences
The language also has some vocabulary from languages outside the Torres Strait area, from the Indonesian, Malay, Philippine,Dialects
There are four main dialects, two of which are on probably the verge of extinction, one (Kaiwaligau Ya) through convergence to the neighbouring Kalaw Lagaw Ya. Within the dialects there are two or more subdialects. The average mutual intelligibility rate, based on a Swadesh count, is around 97%. *Northern dialect: Kalau Kawau Ya (Kalaw Kawaw Ya) — Saibai (Saibai Village and Aith, also Bamaga/Seisia on Cape York), Dœwan (Dauan), Bœigu (Boigu); *Western dialect: Kalau Lagau Ya (Kalaw Lagaw Ya) — Mabuyag ( Mabuiag) and Badhu (Badu). The western dialect also has a simplified form, particularly on Badhu, where quite a few foreign men of Malay and South Sea Islander origin settled with their Island wives in the late 1800s and early 1900s; *Eastern dialect (Central Island dialect, spoken by the Kulkulgal nation): Kulkalgau Ya — Masig, Yama, Waraber, Puruma, and associated islands, now uninhabited, such as Nagi, Tudu and Gebar; *Southern dialect (South-West Islands): Kaiwaligau Ya auraraigau Ya— Muralag, Ngœrupai (alt. Ngurupai) and the other islands of theSamples of the dialects
''They cut down a big tree earlier today to make a canoe.'' :Kalau Kawau Ya: Thana kayb kœi puy pathanu gulpa aymœipa. :Kalaw Lagaw Ya: Thana kayib kœi puuyi pathanu gulka ayimka. :Kulkalgau Ya: Thana kayb kœi puy pathanu gulka aymœika. :Kaiwaligau Ya/Muwalgau Ya: Thana kayib kœi puy pathanu gulpa aymaipa. :Old Kaiwaligau Ya (Kowrareg): Thana kayiba kœi puuři pathanulai gulpa iayimařipa i :Simplified Kalaw Lagaw Ya: Thana kaib kœi puy pathai gulka aymaik. Underlying form: Some isolect markers of the four dialects of Kalaw Lagaw Ya:Dialectal differences
Phonology
Phonological differences between the dialects are rare, and in general sporadic. The only regular differences are the following:Colloquial final unstressed vowel elision
Found in Kulkalgau Ya and Kaiwalgau Ya: * ''maalu'' 'sea' > ''maal’'' *''waapi'' 'fish' > ''waap’'' *''thathi'' 'father' > ''thath’'' *''waaru'' 'turtle' > ''waar’'' *''ngadha'' 'appearance, looks' > ''ngadh’'' *''mœràpi'' 'bamboo' (''à'' shows the stressed syllable) > ''mœràp’'' *''bera'' 'rib' > ''ber’'' *''kaaba'' 'dance performance, knot in bamboo (etc.)' > ''kaab’'' *''kaba'' 'oar, paddle' > kab’'' Such elision is rare or sporadic in Kalau Kawau Ya.Final unstressed vowel devoicing
In Kalaw Lagaw Ya, such final vowels in correct language are devoiced, and deleted in colloquial language, except in a small class of words which include ''bera'' 'rib', where there is a short vowel in the stem and in which the final vowel is permanently deleted, with compensatory lengthening of the final consonant (thus ''berr''). Strictly speaking, the process is not final vowel devoicing, but rather stressed vowel lengthening accompanied by final vowel devoicing — except in the case of words such as ''bera'' 'rib' > ''berr'', where the process is final consonant lengthening by the final vowel being 'incorporated' into the consonant. Note that in the following the word-final capital letter represents a devoiced vowel: *''maalu'' 'sea' > ''maalU'' > ''maal’'' *''waapi'' 'fish' > ''waapI'' > ''waap’'' *''thaathi'' 'father' > ''thaathI'' > ''thaath’'' (Badhu variant ''thath’'') *''waaru'' 'turtle' > ''waarU'' > ''waar’'' *''ngadha'' 'appearance, looks' > ''ngaadhA'' > ''ngaadh’'' *''mœràpi'' 'bamboo' > ''mœrààpI'' > ''mœrààp’'' *''bera'' 'rib' > ''berr'' *''kaba'' 'dance performance, knot in bamboo (etc.)' > ''kaabA'' > ''kaab'' *''kaba'' 'oar, paddle' > ''kabb'' In declined forms of such words, the long vowel is shortened, and the final vowel voiced, and in words like ''ber'' 'rib' the final vowel often reappears: *''maalU'' 'sea' + ''-ka'' 'dative' > ''maluka'' *''waapI'' 'fish' > ''wapika'' *''thaathI'' 'father' > ''thathika'' *''waarU'' 'turtle' > ''waruka'' *''ngaadhA'' 'appearance, looks' > ''ngadhaka'' *''mœrààpI'' 'bamboo' > ''mœràpika'' *''ber'' 'rib' > ''beraka, berka'' *''kaabA'' 'dance performance, knot in bamboo (etc.)' > ''kabaka'' *''kab'' 'oar, paddle' > ''kabaka, kabka'' This vowel shortening in affixed/modified forms exists in all dialects, however the other dialects have retained contrastive length to some extent, whereas Kalaw Lagaw Ya has largely lost it for 'morphophonological' length, where the stressed vowel in non-emotive words (see below) of one or two syllables is automatically lengthened in the nominative-accusative; this also applies to words of three syllables with second syllable stress (as in ''mœrààpI'' 'bamboo'). One of the very few length contrasts in the Kalaw Lagaw Ya dialect is ''kaaba'' 'dance performance, knot in bamboo etc.' vs ''kaba, kab'' 'paddle, oar' (Old Kaiwaligaw Ya auraraigau Ya''kœRaba''; ''œRa'' has regularly given short ''a'' in Kalaw Lagaw Ya in ''kaba, kab''). Such length contrasts are more widespread in the other dialects. The exceptions are (1) the small class or words that include ''ber'' 'rib' and ''kab'' 'oar, paddle', and (2) emotive words. Emotive words are those that equate to a certain extent to diminutives in languages such as Irish, Dutch and German, where specific suffixes are added to show 'diminutive' status (''-ín'', ''-je'' and ''-chen''/''-el''/-''lein'' respectively). Emotive words include familiar kinship terms he equivalent of English ''Mum'', ''Dad'' and the likeand words used in emotive contexts such as singing/poetry.Final i-glide deletion
A small class of words in Kalau Kawau Ya do not have the final i-glide found in the other dialects, including the following: * banana plant: KLY/KulY/KY ''dawai'', KKY ''dawa'' * spot, stain: KLY/KulY/KY ''burkui'' (''bœrkui''), KKY ''bœrku'' (''burku'') * blank skink: KLY/KulY/KY ''mogai'', KKY Saibai/Dœwan ''mogo'', Bœigu ''moga'' * old: KLY/KulY/KY ''kulbai'', KKY ''kulba'' * a short while, first before doing something else: KLY/KulY/KY ''mamui'', KKY ''mamu'' * birth cord: KLY/KulY/KY ''kùpai'', KKY ''kùpa'' Word forms in neighbouring languages as well in the Kauraraigau Ya (Kowrareg) of the mid-to-late 19th century, such as the Meriam Mìr ''kopor'' and Kauraraigau Ya ''kupar''/''kopar'' 'birth cord' show that in such words the final ''-i''/''Ø'' are the modern forms of older ''*ɾ''.Syntax
The main syntactic differences are:Verb negative construction
In all dialects except Kalau Kawau Ya, the verb negative is the nominalised privative form of the verbal noun. As this form in itself a noun, its subject and direct object are cast in the genitive: * ''Ngath waapi purthanu'' 'I ate a fish' * ''Ngai stuwaka uzarima'' 'I went to the store' * ''Ngau wapiu purthaiginga'' 'I didn't eat a fish' * ''Ngau stuwaka uzaraiginga'' 'I didn't go to the store' The Kalau Kawau Ya dialect uses the verbal noun privative form as an invariable verb negative: * ''Ngath waapi purthanu'' 'I ate a fish' * ''Ngai stuwapa uzarima'' 'I went to the store' * ''Ngath waapi purthaiginga'' 'I didn't eat a fish' * ''Ngai stuwapa uzaraiginga'' 'I didn't go to the store'Verb tenses/aspects
The Kalau Kawau Ya dialect has the tenses and aspects listed in the section on verb morphology. The other dialects have largely lost the remote future tense, using the habitual instead; the remote future in the other dialects is retained most commonly as a 'future imperative', where the imperative refers to a vague period in the future. The Kalaw Lagaw Ya dialect also has a 'last night' tense, where the adverb ''bungil''/''bungel'' (reduced form ''bel'') 'last night' has become a verb postclitic, following the model of the adverb ''ngùl'' 'yesterday', which had previously become grammaticalised as a 'recent past' tense marker in all dialects, with reduction to ''-ngu'' in Kalau Kawau Ya. In the other dialects ''bongel'' 'last night' is a fully functioning temporal adverb used in conjunction with either the today past or the recent past. The dialects differ in the forms of the following affixes: # present imperfective/ near future perfective/verbal noun dative: #:KKY/KY -pa, KLY/KulY -ka # Recent past #:KKY -ngu, KLY/KY/KulY -ngul # Today past #:KKY/KLY/KulY -nu, KY -nul (older -nulai) # Habitual #:KKY -paruig/paruidh/-parui/-paru/-pu (-pu most commonly on stems of two or more syllables, and the bi-syllabic forms on stems of one syllable he consonant final forms are emphatic forms #:KLY/KulY -kuruig #:KY -kuruiNominal affixes
The main nominal affix difference is the dative ending, which has the following forms in the various dialects: * KLY/KulY -ka; -pa with ''kipa'' 'to here', ''sipa'' 'to there', ''paipa'' 'to ahead', ''pawupa'' 'to behind, off to one side'; -pa (sometimes in poetry/singing) * KY -pa; -ka in ''ngaikika'' 'to/for/towards me'; -ka (often in poetry/singing) * KKY -pa in all cases; -ka (often in poetry/singing) The plural/HAVE suffix ''-LAI'' (underlying form) also shows a small amount of dialect variation with stems of two syllables, where Kulkalgau Ya differs from the other dialects in retaining the full form of the suffix ''-lai'', reduced to ''-l'' in the other dialects. In stems of three or more syllables, the suffix is reduced to ''-l'' in all dialects, while retained as ''-lai'' (variants according to noun sub-class ''-thai'', ''-ai'', ''-dai'') with stems of one syllable. ;Three+ syllable stem ''burum'' 'pig', stem: ''buruma-'', plural ''burumal'' ;Bisyllabic stem ''lag'', KLY ''laaga'' 'place, home, home island', stem: ''laga-'', plural ''lagal'', KulY ''lagalai'' ;Monosyllabic stems # Regular vowel final: ''ma'' 'spider', plural ''malai'' # Regular -i glide final: ''mui'' 'fire', plural ''muithai'', KLY ''muithail'' # Regular -l final: ''pel'' 'fish tail', plural ''pelai'' # Regular -r final: ''wœr/wur/uur'' 'water', plural ''wœlai/wulai/ulai'', KKY ''wœrai'' # Irregular vowel final stem: ''ya'' 'speech, word(s), message, language, etc.', plural ''yadai'', KLY ''yadail''Vocabulary
The main differences between the dialects are to do with vocabulary, as can be seen in the following examples: * house/building: KLY ''mùùdha'' (''laaga''), KulY ''mùdh'' (''laag''), KY ''laag'' (''mùdh''), KKY ''laag'' * mud: KLY/KulY/KY ''berdhar'' (''sœœya'' 'sandy mud/silt'), KKY ''sœœi'' (''berdhar'' 'softness of food, mud, etc.') * grandad: KLY/KulY/KY ''athe'', KKY ''pòpu'' * frog: KLY/KulY ''kœtube'', ''kœtak'', ''kaata'', KY ''kat'', KLY (Saibai-Dœwan) ''kat'', (Bœigu) ''kœtuke'', ''kat'' * axe: KLY/KulY/KY ''aga'', KKY ''agathurik'' (''thurik'' 'cutting tool') * namesake: KLY/KulY ''natham'', KKY/KY ''nasem'' * small, little: KLY/KulY/KY ''mœgi'', Saibai/Dœwan ''mœgina'', Bœigu ''mœgina, kœthuka'' * woman, female: KKY ''yipkaz/yœpkaz'' tem ''yipkazi-/yœpkazi-'' KLY/KulY ''ipikaz'' (KLY variant ''iipka'') tem ''ipkazi-'' KY ''ipkai/ipikai'' tem ''ipkazi-/ipikazi-''* man, male: KKY ''garkaz''Phonology
Consonants
Kala Lagaw Ya is the only Australian language to have the alveolarVowels
Notes: #The long vowel is only found in Kala Lagaw Ya. #Length is to a certain extent contrastive, and partly allophonic. #The +/-round contrast is reminiscent of Papuan phonology. #The mid long vowels are allophonic variants of the mid short vowels that are in the process of developing phonemic status, while the short vowel is similarly in origin an allophone of . Internal reconstruction and comparison with neighbouring languages suggests an underlying four vowel structure with contrasting vowel length, where underlying ''*i'' typically gives surface and , underlying ''*a'' typically gives surface ''a'' and ''œ'', underlying ''*ò'' typically gives surface and , and underlying ''*u'' typically gives surface and (there are other realisations as well, depending on rules of assimilation etc.): The language undergoes low-level vowel shifts, caused by stress domination within words and phrases. Long vowels are shortened, and short vowels raise when the word is preceded by morphemes such as adjectives, demonstrative articles, prefixes and the like; the changes also occur within words when these are suffixed: * ''laag'' 'place' — ''senabi lag'' 'that place' * ''lagal'' 'places' — ''sethabi lœgal'' 'those places' (also ''sethabi lagal'') * ''mœrap'' 'bamboo' — ''mœrœpil'' 'bamboo plants/poles/sticks' (also ''mœrapil'') * ''guul'' 'sailing canoe' — ''senaubi gul'' 'that canoe' * ''thonaral'' 'times' — ''sethabi thunaral'' 'those times' (also ''sethabi thonaral'') * ''zageth'' 'work' — ''zagithapa'' 'to/for work ative (also ''zagethapa'') (compound of ''za'' 'thing' + ''geth'' 'hand') The processes are low-level in that they are not 'automatic' — the changes do not have to occur and can be consciously 'blocked'. In normal speech, vowel shortening and the change of a to œ normally occur, while the changes of e to i and o to u are sporadic, and most common in unstressed syllables. Assimilation of vowels to other vowels in the vicinity and consonants is also widespread, particularly of the vowel œ: * ''wœrab'' 'coconut' — ''wurab'' — ''urab'' * ''yœlpai'' 'lead' erbal noun— ''yilpai'' — ''ilpai'' * ''ngœnu'' 'whose' — ''ngunu'' * ''kœu'' 'belonging to here' — ''kou'' * ''ngœba'' 'you and I' — ''ngaba''Kauřařaigau Ya phonology
The following summary of the phonology of Old Kauraregau Ya is compiled from MacGillivray (1852), Brierly (in Moore 1978), Ray and Haddon (1897) and Ray (1907). In general, there does not to appear to have been any great phonological difference between OKY and the modern dialects of Kalau Lagau Ya (apart from the retention of ř).Stress
= Bisyllabic forms
= Stress is initial: * ''baba, baba, bapa'': baba 'dad' * ''kawp'': kaapu 'seed' * ''buai, bua, bue, booi, boy, boi, booee, boye'': buwai 'clan; prow' A few forms (such as ''gru'': gœrú 'sugar cane') show that contrastive stress existed in bisyllabic words.= Multisyllabic forms
= Stress is either on the initial or second syllable: (1) initial: * ''gugure'': gagaři 'bow' * ''myrabada'': ngœiřabatha 'father's sister' * ''tukiapalli'': tukuyapalai 'same sex sibling ' (2) second: * ''bobata'': bœbàtha 'grandparent' * ''murrag:'' mœřààga 'sweat' Shifted stress also appears to have occurred as in the modern dialects: * ''purteipa'': pùrthàipa 'eat' (attainative imperfective present singular / perfective today future) * ''pratipa'': pùràthipa 'eat' (active imperfective present singular / perfective today future)Vowels and diphthongs
These appear to have been the same as in the modern language. Vowel length in general appeared in the same environments as in KKY, though some amount ofDevelopment of ''ř''
OKY had one more consonant than modern WCL, transcribed ''ř''. Though the actual pronunciation of this sound and its difference from ''r'' was not given by any early writer, it most likely was a rhotic glide , perhaps with a palatal 'hue'. The loss of this sound in the other dialects (and in modern KY) occurred in the following rules; the changes were beginning to be evident already in OKY: ''Ř'' between like vowels or in deletes. * OKY ''burugo'' (bùřùga) > modern dialects ''bùg'', KLY ''bùùga'' 'marsh fly' * OKY ''sřinge, singe'' > modern dialects ''singe'' 'fish/head carrying loop' * OKY ''murrag'' (mœřaaga) > modern dialects ''maag'', KLY ''maaga'' 'sweat, film' * OKY ''dura'' (dœřàà) > modern dialects ''daa'' 'chest' ''Ř'' sporadically becomes hiwhen in and the following syllable is stressed. * OKY wœřàtha: KY ''wœyath'', KLY ''wiyeth''/''wœyeth'', KulY ''uyeth'', KKY ''wath'' 'year' * OKY ''norat'' (nœřàtha): KY ''nœyath/nath'', KLY ''niyath'', KulY ''niyath'', KKY ''nath'' 'platform' * OKY ''waraaba'' (wœřaba): KY ''uwiba'', KLY ''wiiba'', KulY ''wiiba'', KKY ''waba'' 'green dove' * OKY ''karrabie'' (kœřaba): KY ''kab(a) '', KLY ''kab'', KulY ''kœyaba'', KKY ''kab'' 'paddle, oar' ''Ř'' becomes a Vglide when between hiand hivowels, and between bakand bakvowels. * OKY ''mari'' (maaři): KLY ''maayi'', KKY ''maay'' 'pearl shell' * OKY ''sarima'' (sařima): KLY ''sayim(a)'', KKY ''sayima''/''sayma'' 'outrigger float' * OKY ''puri, prui'' (puuři, pœřuui): KLY puuyi, KKY puuy 'tree, plant, magic' * OKY ''mekari'' (mekaři): KLY ''mekey'', KKY ''mekay'' 'almond' * OKY ''tituri'' (thithuři): KLY ''thithúúyi'', KKY ''thithuy'' 'star' * OKY ''Giralaga'' (Giřalaga): KLY ''Giyalaaga'', KKY ''Giyalag'' 'Friday Island' * OKY ''Mora'' (Muřa~Mořa): KLY ''Muwa'', KKY ''Muwa''~''Mowa'' ''Vuř'' becomes when intervocalic. * OKY ''Maurari'' (Mauřaři): modern dialects ''Maway(i)'' 'Wednesday Island' * OKY ''tura'' (thuřa~thœuřa): modern dialects ''thœwa'' ~ ''thuwa'' 'shortness' ''Ř'' optionally becomes when syllable final and following hivowels; in at least two words metathesis first occurred. * OKY ''kopar'' (kùpařa): KY,KLY,KulY ''kùpai'', KKY ''kùpa'' 'umbilical cord' * OKY ''kaura'' (kauřa): KKY ''kawa,'' KY > *kařua > ''kawa''~''kaiwa'', KLY,KulY ''kaiwa'' 'island' * OKY ''wauri'' (wauři): KKY ''wawi,'' KY,KLY,KulY > *wařua > ''waiwi'' 'arm-band shell' ''Ř'' deletes when syllable final following high vowels and non-final. * OKY ''burkera'' (buřkera): KY ''bùker'' 'hot coal' ''Ř'' disappears when followed by unstressed ''i'' and more than one syllable. * OKY ''ngörimuni'' (ngœřimùni): KKY,KY ''ngœimùn'', KLY,KulY ''ngœlmùn'' 'our EXC PL' * OKY ''myrabat'' (ngœiřabatha): modern dialects ''ngœibath'' 'fathers sister' * OKY ''görigar, göriga'' (gœřigař ''): modern dialects ''gœiga'' 'sun, day' * OKY ''kariki'' (kařiki): modern dialects ''kaiki'' 'here non-specific locative' * OKY ''tyariki'' (seřiki): modern dialects ''seiki'' 'there non-specific locative' Early spellings (e.g. ''möaga'' 'sweat' and ''neet/naat/nöat/niet'' , , , 'platform' show that ř disappeared first, leaving a hiatus (except in those cases where ř > y~i), with reduction of and to , and to . OKY underwent the same allophony and sound changes as the modern dialects, though z ~ dh and s ~ th variation appears to have been more general in OKY, as in the following (perhaps evidence of older allophony in the language which is now levelling out): * ''zaazi'' 'grass skirt': Brierly ''juagee, djaajie, djaajie, dadjee, dadji, dadje, dadjie'', MacGillivray ''daje'', OKY zaazi, dhaazi * ''sagul adhamadha ~ azamadha'' 'be putting put on a dance!': Brierly ''sagool adzamada'', OKY sagul adhamadha ~ azamadha * ''wœsul'' 'dirty water': Brierly ''ootzoo, oodthool'', OKY uusul, uuthul * ''ngœzu'' 'my ': Brierly ''udthu, oldzoo, udzoo'', MacGillivray ''udzu, udz'', OKY ngœzu, ngœdhu An instance of optional r deletion before s is also attested in the following example, unless the first i in ''myaichipp'' is a misprint or misreading of ''*myarchipp'': maayi-arsipa 'wail, keen, weep': Brierly ''myaichipp'', MacGillivray ''maierchipa'', OKY mayarsipa, mayasipa Various forms in OKY showed metathesis of ř and r in the environment of u, i and au: * ngauřakai ~ ngauřakazi > ''naroka, nerawkaji'' 'maiden' (unmarried girl), cf. KKY ''ngawakaz'' * gœřiga ~ gœřigař > ''gyrriegi, gurrigi, goraigor'' 'day, sun', cf. KKY ''gœiga'' * puuři > ''uperia, oopeere, ooperie, uperi, prui, upiri'' 'magic gear/charms/produce', cf. KKY ''puuy'', KLY ''puuyi''. * ''rigaboo, rugabu'' (rugœbaw) > modern dialects ''wœrugœbaw, urugœbaw'', Bœigu ''wœrigœbaw, urigœbaw'' 'sweet potato', lit. ''wœru-gabaw'' 'cord/string-cultivated yam'Syllabification
Syllabification occurred as in the modern dialects, with the addition of ř also attested as a syllable final consonant. One word was recorded by Brierly and MacGillivray with aOrthography
There is no strict standard spelling, and three slightly different orthographies (and often mixes of them) are in use.Mission Spelling
The Mission Spelling (established at first by Loyalty Islands missionaries in the 1870s, then modified by Polynesian missionaries in the 1880s): ''a, b, d, e, g, i, j, k, l, m, n, ng, o, ö, p, r, s, t, u, z'', sometimes also ''th, dh, dth, tr, dr, oe, ë, w, y, j'', and sometimes double vowels to show length. This spelling system was based on that used for the Drehu (Lifu) language, though later with the change to Polynesian mission staff, as well as the growing number of indigenous Torres Strait missionaries, the overtly Drehu forms ''tr'', ''dr'' and ''ë'' were lost; these had no phonological basis in Kalaw Lagaw Ya. The mission system is used in the ''Reports of the Cambridge Expedition to the Torres Strait'' (Haddon et al., 1898 and on, University of Cambridge) and in ''Myths and Legends of Torres Strait'' (Lawrie, University of Queensland, 1971). Ray, the linguist of the Cambridge Expedition, also used various diacritics to represent short vowels and vowel quality.Klokheid and Bani
Established in the 1970s: ''a'', ''aa'', ''b'', ''d'' (alveolar), ''dh'' (dental), ''e'', ''ee'', ''g'', ''i'', ''ii'', ''k'', ''l'', ''m'', ''n'', ''ng'', ''o'', ''oo'',''oe'' (), ''ooe'' (), ''p'', ''r'', ''s'', ''t'' (alveolar), ''th'' (dental), ''u'', ''uu'', ''w'', ''y'', ''z''Saibai, Boigu, Dauan students
Established in the late 1970s: ''a'', ''b'', ''d'' (alveolar), ''dh'' (dental), ''e'', ''g'', ''i'', ''k'', ''l'', ''m'', ''n'', ''ng'', ''o'', ''oe'' (), ''p'', ''r'', ''s'', ''t'' (alveolar), ''th'' (dental), ''u'', ''w'', ''y'', ''z'' (vowel length, though it exists, is rarely represented). People not only use these three slightly differing spelling systems, but also write words more or less as they pronounce them. Words are therefore often spelt in various ways, for example ''sena/sina'' 'that, there', ''kothai/kothay/kothei/kothey/kothe'' 'back of head, occiput'. Such variation depends on age, family, island, village and other factors such as poetic speech. It can be difficult at times to decide which is most correct — different people have different opinions (and sometimes have very strong opinions). In general the pronunciation of older people has priority; however, some people can actually get quite offended if they think the language is written the 'wrong' way. Some insist that the mission spelling should be used, others the Bani spelling, and still others the KKY (Saibai etc.) spelling, and still again others use mixes of two or three, or adaptations thereof. Some writers of the Mabuiag-Badhu dialect (Kalaw Lagaw Ya), for example, write mainly in the Mission system, sometimes use the digraphs ''oe'', ''th'', ''dh'' (variant ''dth'') and sometimes use capital letters at the ends of words to show devoiced vowels, such as ''ngukI'' 'fresh water/drinking water, fruit juice' . In the Bani/Klokheid orthograophy ''nguki'' is written ''nguuki'', and in the other dialects the final vowel is either fully voiced, ''nguki'' ), or elided, ''nguk'' ). The biggest bone of contention between the advocates of the 'modern' orthographies and the 'traditionalist' orthographies is the use of ''w'' and ''y'' to show the semi-vowels. In general native speakers in literacy classes seem to find ''y'' and ''w'' very difficult to learn, and that ''u'' and ''i'' are the 'logical' letters to use. Syllabification of words by untrained speakers suggests that ''u'' and ''i'' are really the underlying sounds. Thus, a word like ''dhaudhai''/''dhawdhay'' 'mainland, continent' syllabifies as ''dha-u-dha-i'', not ''dhau-dhai''. In songs, the glide-''u''/''i'' can also be given full syllable status. Historical considerations also point to the semi-vowels often being vocalic rather than consonantal. Thus, ''lagau'', the genitive of ''laag ' 'place' is in underlying formPronunciation of the letters
The English pronunciations given in the list below are those of Australian English, and are only meant as a guide. The letters in square brackets () are theGrammar
Nominal morphology
Where the morphology is concerned, the language is somewhere along the continuum betweenCommon Nominal declensions
Note that the following are in the Kalau Kawau Ya dialect.Irregular nouns
There are few irregular nouns, the most common being: # ''ai'' 'food', ''ya'' 'speech, language, message, etc.', ''li'' 'basket', ''lu'' 'mound, bump, hump' (instrumental ''aidu'', ''yadu'', ''lidu'', ''ludu''; specific locative/proprietive-plural ''aidai/aide'', ''yadai'', ''lidai'', ''ludai'') # KKY ''na'', KLY ''naawu'', KulY/KY ''nawu'' 'song'; KKY ''yu'' 'drying rack, cooking rack' (other dialects ''nuuwa'', ''nu''); specific locative/proprietive-plural KKY ''nathai'', KLY/KY ''nawul'', KulY ''nawlai''; KKY ''yuthai'' (other dialects ''nuwanu'', ''nuwa''; ''nuwal'', KulY ''nuwalai'')) # ''za'' 'thing, object, matter, etc.' This word has a fuller stem form, ''zapu-'', which appears in certain forms: instrumental ''zapun''; genitive ''zapu''; proprietive-plural ''zapul''. In the locative forms both stems (''za-'' and ''zapu-'') appear: specific locative ''zanu'', ''zapunu'', etc. # ''gœiga'' 'sun, day'; ''bireg/bereg'' 'shelf'. The stems of these words have different forms to the nominative-accusative: ''gœiga'' — stem: ''gœigœyi-'', ''gœigi-''; ''bireg/bereg'' — stem: ''bœreigi-'', ''biregi-'' # ''dœgam'', KLK ''dœgaamu'' 'side, direction, point of compass, aspect'. This word has two stem forms, in free variation: ''dœgamu-'', ''daguma-''Demonstratives
The language has a closed class of demonstrative morphemes with special morphological characteristics: ;Prefixes * ''pi-'', ''pe-'' 'there in the distance in a specific position' * ''kai-'' 'there in the distance in a non-specific position' ;Stems * ''ka-'', ''kawu-/kawa-'' (non-specific), ''í-'' (specific) 'here, this' * ''se-'', ''si-'', ''sewu-/sewa-'' 'there, that (not too far away)' * ''-gu'', KKY ''-gui'', ''-mulu'' (KKY ''-ngùl'' in combined forms) 'down there' * ''-ka'', ''-karai/-kadai'' 'up there' (variant forms of the one underlying stem) * ''-ngapa'' 'there beyond', 'there on the other side' * ''-pai'', ''-pa'', ''-paipa'' 'ahead there, up close there' (variant forms of the one underlying stem ''-pai''), MY ''-kupai'', KY also ''-kudhai'' * ''-pun ', ''-puwa'' 'off from there, back from there, back over there, back there' (possibly variant forms of the one underlying stem) The Kauřařaigau Ya forms recorded are the same as in the modern dialects, with the exception of ''ka-''/''kařu-'' 'non-specific here, this', ''se-''/''si-''/''seřu-'' 'there, that', ''kařa-'' 'non-specific yonder', modern dialects ''kai-'', %''ka-'' and ''-puwai'' 'ahead there', modern dialects ''-pai''/''-pa''. ThesePronouns
The personal pronouns are three-way nominative-ergative-accusative in declension. Note that the third person pronouns are also used as definite articles, e.g. ''Nuidh garkœzin nan yipkaz imadhin'' 'The man saw the woman'.Dual pronouns
The dual and plural pronouns are nominative-accusative, the accusative being the same in form as the genitive, except in KKY, where the accusative is unmarked. ''Ngawal'' 'who ' is constructed from ''nga'' 'who' plus the clitic ''-wal'' 'both (dual conjunction)'.Plural pronouns
''Ngaya'' 'who many' is constructed from ''nga'' 'who' plus the clitic ''-ya'' 'and others (plural conjunction)'.Personal names and familiar kinship terms
''Familiar kinship terms are the equivalent of English kin terms such as Dad and Mum, while non-familiar terms are the equivalent of Father and Mother; these latter are treated as common nouns in the language.''Kauřařaigau Ya nominal morphology
The earliest grammatical records of the language are those of the mid-1800s Kauřařaigau Ya dialect. This dialect is identical to the modern dialects, apart from having more archaic forms of some endings and suffixes as well as stem forms.Nominal suffixes and endings
;Common Nominals * Nominative-Accusative: unmarked * Ergative-Instrumental: -n,-na,-nu,-Cu; demonstratives unmarked * Genitive: monosyllable stems: -ngu, multisyllables -u * Dative-Allative: -pa ~ -pari * Ablative-Causative: nouns, pronouns -nguzi, verbal nouns -lai, adverbs/demonstratives -zi * Specific Locative: monosyllabic stem nouns -lai~-dai~-thai~-ai~-řai~-rai, multisyllabic stem nouns -nulai~-nule~-nuli~-nul, adverbs -lai~-l(a) , demonstratives -ři * Non-Specific Locative: -ya, adverbs/demonstratives -ki~-kidha * Proprietive/Plural: monosyllabic stem nouns -lai~-dai~-thai~-ai~-řai~-rai, multisyllabic stem nouns, adverbs -lai (>-le~-li), -rai (> -re~-ri), -řai (> -ře~-ři) * Privative: -gi * Imitative-Similative: -dha * Resultative: -zi ;Proper Nominals No early writer recorded declined feminine forms, apart from the genitive. Ray (1907:20-21) implies (by default) that the OKY paradigm is basically the same as that of OKLY. * Nominative-Ergative-Instrumental: unmarked * Accusative-Genitive: masculine -ni, feminine -na-, dual-plural pronoun -ni~-mùni * Dative-Allative: masculine -nipa i'' , feminine ?-napa i'', dual-plural pronoun -nipa i-mùnipa(ri) * Ablative-Causative: masculine -ninguzi ~-nunguzi, feminine ?-nanguzi, dual-plural pronoun -ninguzi~-nunguzi~-mùninguzi~-mùnunguzi * Locative: masculine -niya, feminine ? -naya, dual-plural pronoun -niya~-mùniya * Imitative-Similative: -dha, dual-plural pronoun -dha~-mùdhaKauřařaigau Ya Pronouns
Brierly (B), MacGillivray (M) and Ray (R) recorded the following forms of the singular pronouns of OKY: ;Nominative * 1st — Brierly ''gni, ngi''; Macgillivray ''ngai''; Ray ''ngai'' * 2nd — Macgillivray ''ngi''; Ray ''ngi'' * 3rd masculine — Macgillivray ''nue''; Ray ''nui'' * 3rd feminine — Macgillivray ''na, nga''; Ray ''na'' * 'who' — Brierly ''gua''; Macgillivray ''nga''; Ray ''nga'' * 'what' — Macgillivray ''[]mi''; Ray ''mi-'' ;Accusative * 1st — Brierly ''ana''; Macgillivray ''ana''; Ray ''ngana'' * 2nd — Brierly ''gin''; MacGillivray ''ngi''; Ray ''nginö, ngin'' * 3rd masculine — Brierly ''nooano''; MacGillivray ''nudu''; Ray ''nuinö, nuin'' * 3rd feminine — Ray ''nanö, nan'' * 'who' — Ray ''nganö, ngan'' * 'what' — not recorded ;Instrumental-Ergative * 1st — Brierly ''nath, nut''; Macgillivray ''ngatu''; Ray ''ngata, ngatö, ngat'' * 2nd — Brierly ''needtha, needthoo''; Macgillivray ''ngidu''; Ray ''ngida, ngidö, ngid'' * 3rd masculine — Brierly ''nooide'' ; MacGillivray ''nudu''; Ray ''nuida, nuidö, nuid'' * 3rd feminine — Macgillivray ''nadu''; Ray ''nada, nadö, nad'' * 'who' — Macgillivray ''ngadu''; Ray ''ngada, ngadö, ngad'' * 'what' — Brierly ''meedan''; Macgillivray ''mida''; Ray ''mida, midö, mid'' ;Genitive * 1st — Brierly ''ngau, gnau, ngow'' masculine, ''udthu, oldzoo, udzoo'' feminine; Macgillivray ''ngow'' masculine, ''udzu, udz'' feminine; Ray ''ngau'' masculine, ''ngazu, nguzu'' feminine * 2nd — Brierly ''gnee, ye noo, yeenow, niu, yenoo, meeno''; MacGillivray ''yinu''; Ray ''nginu'' * 3rd masculine — Brierly ''noonoo''; Ray ''nungu'' * 3rd feminine — Macgillivray ''nanue''; Ray ''nanu'' * 'who' — Ray ''ngunu'' * 'what' — not recorded Based on the above forms and the modern dialects, the OKY pronouns are reconstructed as follows: The accusatives, the ablatives and imitatives underwent optional final vowel deletion, while the ergatives optionally transformed the final u to a or œ, or deleted it, thus ngathu > ngatha > ngathœ > ngath. The recorded dual-plural forms are: ;Nominative-Ergative-Instrumental * 1st Dual Exclusive — MacGillivray ''albei''; Ray ''ngalbai'' * 1st Dual Inclusive — MacGillivray ''aba''; Ray ''ngaba'' * 2nd Dual — MacGillivray ''ngipel''; Ray ''ngipel'' * 3rd Dual — MacGillivray ''pale''; Ray ''palai'' * 'who' Dual — Ray ''nga wal'' * 1st Plural Exclusive — Brierly ''ari, churri''; MacGillivray ''arri, uri''; Ray ''ngöi'' * 1st Plural Inclusive — Brierly ''alpa''; MacGillivray ''alpa''; Ray ''ngalpa'' * 2nd Plural — MacGillivray ''ngi-tana''; Ray ''ngita'' * 3rd Plural — MacGillivray ''tana''; Ray ''tana'' ;Accusative-Genitive * 1st Dual Exclusive — Brierly ''abonnie, abuni, abani, aboni''; MacGillivray N/A; Ray ''ngalbaini'' * 1st Dual Inclusive — Brierly N/A; MacGillivray ''abane, abeine''; Ray ''ngabani'' * 2nd Dual — Brierly N/A; MacGillivray ''ngipeine''; Ray ''ngipeni'' * 3rd Dual — Brierly N/A; MacGillivray ''palaman''; Ray ''palamuni'' * 1st Plural Exclusive — Brierly ''areen''; MacGillivray ''arrien''; Ray ''ngöimunu'' * 1st Plural Inclusive — Ray ''ngalpanu'' * 2nd Plural — MacGillivray ''ngitanaman''; Ray ''ngitamunu'' * 3rd Plural — MacGillivray ''tanaman''; Ray ''tanamunu'' ;Dative * 1st Dual Exclusive: MacGillivray ''albi nipa''; Ray ''ngalbainipa'' * 1st Dual Inclusive: MacGillivray ''albynape''; Ray ''ngabanipa'' * 2nd Dual: Ray ''ngipenipa'' * 3rd Dual: MacGillivray ''pale nipa''; Ray ''palamunipa'' * 1st Plural Exclusive: MacGillivray ''arri nipa''; Ray ''ngöinipa, ngöimunipa'' * 1st Plural Inclusive: Ray ''ngalpanipa, ngalpamunipa '' * 2nd Plural: Ray ''ngitanipa, ngitamunipa'' * 3rd Plural: MacGillivray ''tane nipa''; Ray ''tananipa, tanamunipa'' ;Ablative * recorded by Ray as ''- uunguzi'' These can be reconstructed as: * 'Who' in the dual nominative-accusative (and optionally in the ergative-instrumental) had the forms ''ngawal'' (dual) and ''ngaya'' (plural). * Mi- 'what, which' was used in much the same way as in the modern dialects.Verb morphology
Verbs can have over 100 different aspect, tense,Sample verb declension
The verb here is ''íma-'' 'see, observe, supervise, examine, try, test' ;Tensed forms ;Non-tensed forms ;Nominalised formsKauřařaigau Ya verbal morphology
Prefixes These were the same as in the modern dialects. Suffixes The only suffix differences with the modern dialects were in the form of the plural and verbal noun suffixes. In OKY these were maři and ři respectively. The dual was ngauma on ma- 'take, give, move etc.' and otherwise uma. Class 1: wœidha- 'put, place, cook' * wœidhamařinu attainative perfective present plural object * wœidhaumanu attainative perfective present dual object * wœidhemařinu active perfective present plural subject * wœidheumanu active perfective present dual subject * wœidhàři verbal noun Class 2: ni-, niya- 'sit, stay' * niyamařipa i'' imperfective present plural * niyaumapa i'' imperfective present dual * niyàři, niyài verbal noun Verb endings On the whole, the OKY verb seems to have been declined like the Kalau Lagau Ya verb. This includes the loss of the suffix ma in the intransitive imperfective present/perfective today future singular. This loss, however, appears to have been optional in the today past equivalent: * OKY ''daneipa'' (danaipa) 'rise (sun)' (MacGillivray): KLY ''danaika'', KKY ''danamipa'' 'rise (sun, etc.), load (self) up' present imperfective * OKY ''dadeipa'' (dhœidhaipa) 'die' (MacGillivray): KLY ''dhœidhaika'' (base ''dhœidhama-'') 'be dizzy, dead drunk' present imperfective * OKY ''usimema, usima'' (usimima, usima) 'douse' (MacGillivray): KLY ''usima'', KKY ''wœsimima'' 'douse' today past perfective Vowel/diphthong deletion and reduction in class 1b verbs was optional in OKY where it is now optional or obligatory: * OKY uzareuma-: KLY ''uzareuma-'', KKY ''uzarma-'' 'go dual' * OKY ''delupeipa'' (dœdupaipa) 'drown, sink': KLY ''dudupaka'', KKY ''dœdupapa'' The irregular verb ''yœwi-'' / ''iya-'' / ''yœuna-'' 'lie/slant/lean over/down' was recorded in the form iipa (''eepah''), indicating the stem ii- (the remote past form ''iir'' is found in modern KY, though not recorded in OKY). Otherwise, only ''yœuna-'' was recorded for OKY.Miscellaneous paradigms
Three paradigms that have irregular morphology are: * ''Si ai'' 'perhaps, maybe, possibly' (all dialects except Kalau Kawau Ya). This word modifies for singular gender : masculine ''sinukai/senukai''; feminine ''sinakai/senakai''; general (singular, dual, plural) ''sikai''. In KKY, the word is invariable ''sike'', ''sikedh'' (''sikedh'' is more emphatic.) * ''yawa'' 'goodbye, farewell, take care' (cf. ''yawar'' 'journey, travel'; ''yawaya-'' 'watch over, watch out for, etc.'). This word is only used when speaking to a single person. For two or more people, the form is ''yawal''. * masculine ''kame'' ~ ''kamedh'', feminine ''kake'' ~ ''kakedh'', non-singular ''kole'' ~ ''koledh'' 'hey!' (word used to attract someone's attention; in ''kamedh'', ''kakedh'' and ''koledh'' (the ''-dh'' final in all these, like in ''sikedh'' above, is only found in more emphatic use.)Sign language
The Torres Strait Islanders, neighbouring Papuans and neighbouring Australians have a common sign language, though early records did not make a detailed study of this (e.g. Australian Aboriginal sign languages). Kendon, A. (1988) ''Sign Languages of Aboriginal Australia: Cultural, Semiotic and Communicative Perspectives.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Simple conversations and stories can be carried out in the sign language; however, it does not attain the sophistication of a fully developed sign language. It's had some influence on Far North Queensland Indigenous Sign Language.See also
* Meriam language * Torres Strait CreoleReferences
Bibliography
* * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Kala Lagaw Ya Language Agglutinative languages Pama–Nyungan languages Torres Strait Islands culture