Krishna Janmashtami , also known simply as Krishnashtami, Janmashtami, or Gokulashtami, is an annual
Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
festival that celebrates the birth of
Krishna
Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
, the eighth
avatar
Avatar (, ; ), is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means "descent". It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, goddess or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appeara ...
of
Vishnu
Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.
Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" withi ...
.
According to the
Hindu lunisolar calendar, it is observed on the eighth
tithi
In Vedic timekeeping, a ''tithi'' is a uration of two faces of moon that is observed from earth known as ''milа̄lyа̄'' (𑐩𑐶𑐮𑐵𑐮𑑂𑐫𑐵𑑅, मिलाल्याः) in Nepal Bhasa, or the time it takes for the longi ...
(
Ashtami
Ashtami (अष्टमी ''aṣṭamī'') is the eighth day (Tithi) of Hindu lunar calendar.
Festivals Krishna Janmashtami
Krishna Janmashtami or Gokul Ashtami is a Hindu festival celebrating the birth of Lord Krishna, an avatar of Hindu deit ...
) of the
Krishna Paksha
Paksha (also known as ''pakṣa''; sa, पक्ष, Nepal Bhasa: ''thwa'' and ''gа̄''; ) refers to a fortnight or a lunar phase in a month of the Hindu lunar calendar.
Literally meaning "side", a paksha is the period either side of the Ful ...
(dark fortnight) of
Shraavana
Śrāvaṇa ( sa, श्रावण) is the fifth month of the Hindu calendar. In India's national civil calendar, Śrāvaṇa is the fifth month of the year, beginning on July 23 and ending on August 22. In the Tamil calendar, it is known ...
Masa
''Masa'' (or ''masa de maíz'') (; ) is a maize dough that comes from ground nixtamalized corn. It is used for making corn tortillas, '' gorditas'', ''tamales'', '' pupusas'', and many other Latin American dishes. It is dried and powdered into ...
(according to the
amanta tradition) or
Bhadrapada Masa
''Masa'' (or ''masa de maíz'') (; ) is a maize dough that comes from ground nixtamalized corn. It is used for making corn tortillas, '' gorditas'', ''tamales'', '' pupusas'', and many other Latin American dishes. It is dried and powdered into ...
(according to the
purnimanta tradition). This overlaps with August or September of the
Gregorian calendar
The Gregorian calendar is the calendar used in most parts of the world. It was introduced in October 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII as a modification of, and replacement for, the Julian calendar. The principal change was to space leap years dif ...
.
It is an important festival, particularly in the
Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
tradition of Hinduism. Dance-drama enactments of the life of Krishna according to the ''
Bhagavata Purana
The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in Sa ...
'' (such as
Rasa Lila
The rasalila (), also rendered the raslila or the ras dance, is part of the traditional story of Krishna described in Hindu scriptures such as the Bhagavata Purana and literature such as the Gita Govinda, where he dances with Radha and the gopis ...
or Krishna Lila), devotional singing through the midnight when Krishna was born, fasting (''upavasa''), a night vigil (Ratri ''Jagaran''), and a festival (Mahotsav) on the following day are a part of the Janmashtami celebrations. It is celebrated particularly in
Mathura
Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. ...
and
Vrindavan
Vrindavan (; ), also spelt Vrindaban and Brindaban, is a historical city in the Mathura district of Uttar Pradesh, India. It is located in the Braj Bhoomi region and holds religious importance in Hinduism as Krishna spent most of his childho ...
, along with major
Vaishnava
Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
and non-sectarian communities found in Manipur,
Assam
Assam (; ) is a state in northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of . The state is bordered by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh to the north; Nagaland and Manipur ...
,
Bihar
Bihar (; ) is a state in eastern India. It is the 2nd largest state by population in 2019, 12th largest by area of , and 14th largest by GDP in 2021. Bihar borders Uttar Pradesh to its west, Nepal to the north, the northern part of West Be ...
, West Bengal, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan
Rajasthan (; lit. 'Land of Kings') is a state in northern India. It covers or 10.4 per cent of India's total geographical area. It is the largest Indian state by area and the seventh largest by population. It is on India's northwestern si ...
,
Gujarat
Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Kerala
Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and all the other states of India.
Krishna Janmashtami is followed by the festival
Nandotsava Nandotsava is a festival celebrated the day after the festival Janmashtami, which celebrates the Lord Krishna's birth.
It is believed that all the villagers of Braj visited Nand Baba's house to see little Krishna and congratulate Mata Yashoda.
Nand ...
, which celebrates the occasion when
Nanda
Nanda may refer to:
Indian history and religion
* Nanda Empire, ruled by the Nanda dynasty, an Indian royal dynasty ruling Magadha in the 4th century BCE
** Mahapadma Nanda, first Emperor of the Nanda Empire
** Dhana Nanda (died c. 321 BCE), last ...
distributed gifts to the community in honor of the birth.
Significance
Krishna
Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
was
Devaki
Devaki (Sanskrit: देवकी, IAST: ''Devakī'') is a character in Hindu literature, most noted for being the mother of the god Krishna. She is one of the seven daughters of Devapa or Devaka, a king of the Yadu dynasty, and has four broth ...
and
Vasudeva Anakadundubhi's son, and his birthday is celebrated by Hindus as Janmashtami, particularly those of the
Gaudiya Vaishnavite tradition, as he is considered the supreme personality of the
Godhead. Janmashtami is celebrated when Krishna is believed to have been born according to Hindu tradition, which was in
Mathura
Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. ...
at midnight on the eighth day of
Bhadrapada or the 23rd day of
Shraavana
Śrāvaṇa ( sa, श्रावण) is the fifth month of the Hindu calendar. In India's national civil calendar, Śrāvaṇa is the fifth month of the year, beginning on July 23 and ending on August 22. In the Tamil calendar, it is known ...
, which overlaps with late August and early September in the Gregorian calendar.
Krishna was born in an area of chaos. It was a time when persecution was rampant, freedoms were denied, evil was everywhere, and when there was a threat to his life by his uncle, King
Kansa.
Immediately following the birth of Krishna at
Mathura
Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. ...
, his father
Vasudeva Anakadundubhi took him across the
Yamuna
The Yamuna (Hindustani language, Hindustani: ), also spelt Jumna, is the second-largest tributary river of the Ganges by discharge and the longest tributary in List of major rivers of India, India. Originating from the Yamunotri Glacier at a ...
river to
foster parents
Foster care is a system in which a minor has been placed into a ward, group home (residential child care community, treatment center, etc.), or private home of a state-certified caregiver, referred to as a "foster parent" or with a family memb ...
in
Gokula
Gokula Singh (also known as Veer Gokula, or Gokal or Gokul Singh Jat; died on 1 January 1670 AD) was a Jat zamindar of Tilpat, belonging to Haga(Agre/Agha) gotra, in what is now the state of Haryana, India. The second of four sons born to Madu, ...
named
Nanda
Nanda may refer to:
Indian history and religion
* Nanda Empire, ruled by the Nanda dynasty, an Indian royal dynasty ruling Magadha in the 4th century BCE
** Mahapadma Nanda, first Emperor of the Nanda Empire
** Dhana Nanda (died c. 321 BCE), last ...
and
Yashoda
Yashoda ( sa, यशोदा, translit=Yaśodā) is the foster-mother of Krishna and the wife of Nanda Baba, Nanda. She is described in the Puranic texts of Hinduism as the wife of Nanda Baba, Nanda, the chieftain of Gokul, Gokulam, and the siste ...
, who were Vasudeva's brother and sister-in-law. Along with Krishna, an avatar of the serpent
Shesha
Shesha (Sanskrit: शेष; ) , also known as Sheshanaga (Sanskrit: शेषनाग; ) or Adishesha (), is a serpentine demigod (Naga) and Nagaraja (King of all serpents), as well as a primordial being of creation in Hinduism. In the Puran ...
was also incarnated on earth as Krishna's older brother
Balarama
Balarama (Sanskrit: बलराम, IAST: ''Balarāma'') is a Hindu god and the elder brother of Krishna. He is particularly significant in the Jagannath tradition, as one of the triad deities. He is also known as Haladhara, Halayudha, Balad ...
, who was the son of
Rohini, Vasudeva's first wife. This legend is celebrated on Janmashtami by people keeping fasts, singing devotional songs of love for Krishna, and keeping a vigil into the night.
After Krishna's midnight hour birth, forms of baby Krishna are bathed and clothed, then placed in a cradle. The devotees then break their fast by sharing food and sweets. Women draw tiny footprints outside their house doors and kitchen, walking towards their house, a symbolism for Krishna's journey into their homes.
Celebrations
![Baby thief Krishna (bazaar art, c](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Baby_thief_Krishna_%28bazaar_art%2C_c.1950%27s%29.jpg)
Hindus celebrate Janmashtami by fasting, singing, praying together, preparing and sharing special food, night vigils, and visiting Krishna or Vishnu temples. Major Krishna temples organize recitation of ''Bhagavata Purana'' and ''Bhagavad Gita''. Many northern Indian communities organize dance-drama events called ''Rasa Lila'' or ''Krishna Lila''.
The tradition of Rasa Lila is particularly popular in the Mathura region, in northeastern states of India such as Manipur and Assam, and in parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat. It is acted out by numerous teams of amateur artists, cheered on by their local communities, and these drama-dance plays begin a few days before each Janmashtami. People decorate their houses with flowers and light. On this day, People chant "Hare Krishna hare Krishna, Krishna- Krishna Hare Hare". The Janmashtami celebration is followed by ''Dahi Handi'', which is celebrated the next day.
Jammu Region
In
Jammu region
The Jammu division (; ) is a revenue and administrative division within Jammu and Kashmir, a union territory of India. It consists of the districts of Jammu, Doda, Kathua, Ramban, Reasi, Kishtwar, Poonch, Rajouri, Udhampur and Samba. Most of ...
, Janamashtami is popularly known by the name "''Thogre/Thakure da Vrat''"
(meaning Vrat dedicated to Thakur i.e. Shri Krishna). Observing a ''Phalaahari Vrat'' for complete one day is the major ritual in the festival. The day is marked by numerous ''Phalaahari Dhaams'' or ''Bhandaras'' in the streets of Jammu region's prominent towns.
Young boys celebrate Janamashtami by flying kites in the sky. Often Shri Krishna themed kites are flown in the sky by kids. Janamashtami marks the beginning of kite flying season in the Jammu region.
While on other hand, Girls and women decorate their palms by applying ''Teera,'' dye of an indigenous plant.
Another ceremony associated with Janamashtami in Jammu region is Deyaa Parna''
' in which
Dogras
The Dogras or Dogra people, are an Indo-Aryan ethno-linguistic group in India and Pakistan consisting of the Dogri language speakers. They live predominantly in the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir, and in adjoining areas of Punjab, Himachal ...
donate cereal grains in the name of their ancestors & ''Kuldevtas.'' A holy tree called ''Jand'' is worshipped by women on this day. Special Rotis called ''Draupads'' are prepared and offered to cows & deities.
During evening, devotees start assembling at Mandirs for
Bhajan
Bhajan refers to any devotional song with a religious theme or spiritual ideas, specifically among Indian religions, in any language. The term bhajanam (Sanskrit: भजनम्) means ''reverence'' and originates from the root word ''bhaj'' ...
Kirtan
Kirtana ( sa, कीर्तन; ), also rendered as Kirtan, is a Sanskrit word that means "narrating, reciting, telling, describing" of an idea or story, specifically in Indian religions. It also refers to a genre of religious performance arts ...
& processions. Many people dress their children/infant as ''Bal Gopaal''. At midnight Shri Krishna Janam is celebrated. ''Abhishek'' ceremony of ''Bal Gopaal'' is performed and Bhog of ''Sund Panjiri, Makkhan Mishri & Panchmeva'' is offered to ''Bal Gopaal'' ji.
Kashmir
Janamashtami is celebrated as ''Zaram Satam'' (Janam Saptami) by the native
Kashmiri Pandits
The Kashmiri Pandits (also known as Kashmiri Brahmins) are a group of Kashmiri Hindus and a part of the larger Saraswat Brahmin community of India. They belong to the Pancha-Gauda, Pancha Gauda Brahmin group from the Kashmir Valley, a mountai ...
of Kashmir. The festival is associated with observing a ''Vrat'' whole day and visiting ''Thokur Kuth'' (Krishna Mandir) at midnight. At Night, ''Puja'' is performed in the temples which includes ''Abhishek'' to ''Krishna Murti'' & ''Bhajan'' singing. ''Phalaahari'' food items like ''Gaer'' or ''Singhada Lapsi'' (made from waterchestnut flour), fruits, dried fruits are consumed on this day.
Maharashtra
![Gokulashtami](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Gokulashtami.jpg)
Janmashtami (popularly known as "Gokulashtami" as in
Maharashtra
Maharashtra (; , abbr. MH or Maha) is a states and union territories of India, state in the western India, western peninsular region of India occupying a substantial portion of the Deccan Plateau. Maharashtra is the List of states and union te ...
) is celebrated in cities such as
Mumbai
Mumbai (, ; also known as Bombay — the official name until 1995) is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra and the ''de facto'' financial centre of India. According to the United Nations, as of 2018, Mumbai is the second- ...
,
Latur
Latur(लातूर) is a city in Indian state of Maharashtra, and is one of the largest cities of the Marathwada region. It is the administrative headquarters of Latur district and Latur Taluka. The city is a tourist hub surrounded by many ...
,
Nagpur
Nagpur (pronunciation: Help:IPA/Marathi, aːɡpuːɾ is the third largest city and the winter capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the 13th largest city in India by population and according to an Oxford's Economics report, Nag ...
and
Pune
Pune (; ; also known as Poona, (List of renamed Indian cities and states#Maharashtra, the official name from 1818 until 1978) is one of the most important industrial and educational hubs of India, with an estimated population of 7.4 million ...
. ''Dahi Handi'' is celebrated every August/September, the day after Krishna Janmashtami.
Here, people break the
Dahi Handi
Dahi Handi (also known as Gopal Kala or Utlotsavam) is an entertainment and competitive event associated with Krishna Janmashtami, the Hindu festival celebrating the birth of Krishna.
During the event, which takes place during August or Septembe ...
which is a part of this festival. The term Dahi Handi literally means "earthen pot of yogurt". The festival gets this popular regional name from the legend of baby Krishna. According to it, he would seek and steal milk products such as yogurt and butter and people would hide their supplies high up out of the baby's reach. Krishna would try all sorts of creative ideas in his pursuit, such as making
human pyramid
A human pyramid is an acrobatic formation of three or more people in which two or more people support a tier of higher people, who in turn may support other, higher tiers of people. People above the bottom tier may kneel or stand on the shoulders ...
s with his friends to break these high hanging pots.
This story is the theme of numerous reliefs on Hindu temples across India, as well as literature and dance-drama repertoire, symbolizing the joyful innocence of children, that love and life's play is the manifestation of god.
In Maharashtra and other western states in India, this Krishna legend is played out as a community tradition on Janmashtami, where pots of yoghurt are hung high up, sometimes with tall poles or from ropes hanging from the second or third level of a building.
Per the annual tradition, teams of youth and boys called the "Govindas" go around to these hanging pots, climb one over another and form a human pyramid, then break the pot.
Girls surround these boys, cheer and tease them while dancing and singing. The spilled contents are considered as ''Prasada'' (celebratory offering). It is a public spectacle, cheered and welcomed as a community event.
In contemporary times, many Indian cities celebrate this annual Hindu ritual. Youth groups form ''Govinda pathaks'', which compete with each other, especially for prize money on Janamashtami. These groups are called ''mandals'' or ''handis'' and they go around the local areas, attempting to break as many pots as possible every August. Social celebrities and media attend the festivities, while corporations sponsor parts of the event.
Cash and gifts are offered for ''Govinda'' teams, and according to
The Times of India
''The Times of India'', also known by its abbreviation ''TOI'', is an Indian English-language daily newspaper and digital news media owned and managed by The Times Group. It is the third-largest newspaper in India by circulation and largest ...
, in 2014 over 4,000 ''handis'' in Mumbai alone were high hung with prizes, and numerous Govinda teams participated.
Gujarat and Rajasthan
![Festive dishes on Krishna Janmashtami](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Festive_dishes_on_Krishna_Janmashtami.jpg)
People in
Dwarka
Dwarka () is a city and a municipality of Devbhumi Dwarka district in the state of Gujarat in Western India. It is located on the western shore of the Okhamandal Peninsula on the right bank of the Gomti river at the mouth of the Gulf of Kut ...
in Gujarat – where Krishna is believed to have established his kingdom – celebrate the festival with a tradition similar to ''Dahi Handi'', called ''Makhan Handi'' (pot with freshly churned butter). Others perform folk dances at temples, sing
bhajan
Bhajan refers to any devotional song with a religious theme or spiritual ideas, specifically among Indian religions, in any language. The term bhajanam (Sanskrit: भजनम्) means ''reverence'' and originates from the root word ''bhaj'' ...
s, visit the Krishna temples such as at the
Dwarkadhish Temple
The Dwarkadhish temple, also known as the Jagat Mandir and occasionally spelled Dwarakadheesh, is a Hindu temple dedicated to Krishna, who is worshiped here by the name ''Dwarkadhish'', or 'King of Dwarka'. The temple is located at Dwarka ci ...
or
Nathdwara
Nathdwara is a town near Rajsamand city in the Rajsamand district of the state of Rajasthan, India. It is located in the Aravalli hills, on the banks of the Banas River and is 48 kilometres north-east of Udaipur. Shrinathji, is a swarup of l ...
. In the
Kutch district region, farmers decorate their bullock carts and take out Krishna processions, with group singing and dancing.
The carnival-style and playful poetry and works of
Dayaram
Dayaram (1777–1853) was a Gujarati poet of medieval Gujarati literature and was the last poet of the old Gujarati school. He is known in Gujarati literature for his literary form called ''Garbi'', a lyric song. He was a follower of Pushtima ...
, a scholar of the
Pushtimarg
Pushtimarg (), also known as ''Pushtimarg sampradaya'' or ''Vallabha sampradaya'', is a subtradition of the Rudra Sampradaya (Vaishnavism). It was founded in the early 16th century by Vallabhacharya (1479–1531) and is focused on Krishna. of
Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
, is particularly popular during Janmashtami in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
South India
Gokula Ashtami (Janmashtami or Sri Krishna Jayanti) celebrates the birthday of Krishna. Gokulashtami is celebrated with great fervor in South India.
In
Kerala
Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
, people celebrate in September, according to the
Malayalam calendar
The Malayalam Calendar is a sidereal solar calendar used in Kerala. The origin of the calendar has been dated to 825 CE, the beginning of the Kollam Era.
There are many theories regarding the origin of the era, but according to recent schola ...
.
In
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a States and union territories of India, state in southern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by area, tenth largest Indian state by area and the List of states and union territories of India ...
, people decorate the floor with kolams (decorative pattern drawn with rice batter). Geetha Govindam and other such devotional songs are sung in praise of Krishna. The footprints of the infant Krishna from the threshold of the house till the pooja room, which depicts the arrival of Krishna into the house. A recitation of ''Bhagavad Gita'' is also a popular practice. The offerings made to Krishna include fruits, betel and butter. Savories believed to be Krishna's favorites are prepared with great care. The most important of them are seedai, sweet seedai, verkadalai urundai. The festival is celebrated in the evening as Krishna was born at midnight. Most people observe a strict fast on this day and eat only after the midnight puja.
![Krishnastami Toddler Dress Up 2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Krishnastami_Toddler_Dress_Up_2.jpg)
In
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
, recitation of shlokas and devotional songs are the characteristics of this festival. Another unique feature of this festival is that young boys are dress up as Krishna and they visit neighbours and friends. Different varieties of fruits and sweets are first offered to Krishna and after the puja, these sweets are distributed among the visitors. The people of Andhra Pradesh observe a fast too. Various kinds of sweets are made to offer Gokula Nandan on this day. Eatables along with milk and curd are prepared to make offerings to Krishna. Joyful chanting of Krishna's name takes place in quite a few temples of the state. The number of temples dedicated to Krishna are few. The reason being that people have taken to worship him through paintings and not idols.
Popular south Indian temples dedicated to Krishna are
Rajagopalaswamy Temple in
Mannargudi
Mannargudi () is a town in Thiruvarur district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the headquarters of the Mannargudi taluk. The town is located at a distance of from the district headquarters Thiruvarur, 36 km from Kumbakonam, 40 km fro ...
in the
Tiruvarur district
Thiruvarur district is one of the 38 districts in the Tamil Nadu state of India. As of 2011, the district had a population of 1,264,277 with a sex-ratio of 1,017 females for every 1,000 males.
Geography
The district occupies an area of 2,161 ...
, Pandavadhoothar temple in
Kanchipuram
Kanchipuram ('; ) also known as ''Conjeevaram,'' is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu in the Tondaimandalam region, from Chennaithe capital of Tamil Nadu. Known as the ''City of Thousand Temples'', Kanchipuram is known for its temple ...
, Sri Krishna temple at
Udupi
Udupi (alternate spelling Udipi; also known as Odipu) is a city in the Indian state of Karnataka. Udupi is situated about north of the educational, commercial and industrial hub of Mangalore and about west of state capital Bangalore by road.
...
, and the Krishna temple at
Guruvayur
Guruvayur () is a municipal temple town in Thrissur District, of Kerala State in India. It is a suburban town of Thrissur city, located from Thrissur towards the north-west. It houses the Guruvayur Shri Krishna Temple. It is located at ...
are dedicated to the memory of Vishnu's incarnation as Krishna. Legend says that the Sree Krishna Idol installed in Guruvayur is from Dwarka which is believed to be submerged in the sea. Varagur sri venkatesa perumal temple tanjore district of Tamil Nadu
Northern India
![ISKCON temple, Delhi at Janamashtami](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/ISKCON_temple%2C_Delhi_at_Janamashtami.jpg)
Janmashtami is the largest festival in the
Braj
Braj, also known as Vraj, Vraja, Brij or Brijbhoomi, is a region in India on both sides of the Yamuna river with its centre at Mathura-Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh state encompassing the area which also includes Palwal and Ballabhgarh in Haryana ...
region of north India, in cities such as
Mathura
Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. ...
where Hindu tradition states Krishna was born, and in
Vrindavan
Vrindavan (; ), also spelt Vrindaban and Brindaban, is a historical city in the Mathura district of Uttar Pradesh, India. It is located in the Braj Bhoomi region and holds religious importance in Hinduism as Krishna spent most of his childho ...
where he grew up.
Vaishnava communities in these cities in
Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh (; , 'Northern Province') is a state in northern India. With over 200 million inhabitants, it is the most populated state in India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. It was established in 1950 ...
, as well as others in the state, as well as locations in Rajasthan, Delhi, Haryana, Uttarakhand and Himalayan north celebrate Janmashtami. Krishna temples are decorated and lighted up, they attract numerous visitors on the day, while Krishna devotees hold
bhakti
''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...
events and keep night vigil.
The festival typically falls as the monsoons in north India have begun retreating, fields laden with crops and rural communities have time to play. In the northern states, Janmashtami is celebrated with the ''Raslila'' tradition, which literally means "play (Lila) of delight, essence (Rasa)". This is expressed as solo or group dance and drama events at Janmashtami, wherein Krishna related compositions are sung, music accompanies the performance, while actors and audience share and celebrate the performance by clapping hands to mark the beat.
The childhood pranks of Krishna and the love affairs of
Radha-Krishna
Radha-Krishna (IAST , sa, राधा कृष्ण) are collectively known within Hinduism as the combined forms of feminine as well as the masculine realities of God. Krishna and Radha are the primeval forms of God and his pleasure potenc ...
are particularly popular. According to Christian Roy and other scholars, these Radha-Krishna love stories are Hindu symbolism for the longing and love of the human soul for the divine principle and reality it calls
Brahman
In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...
.
In
Jammu
Jammu is the winter capital of the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), Jammu and Kashmir. It is the headquarters and the largest city in Jammu district of the union territory. Lying on the banks of the river Tawi Ri ...
,
kite
A kite is a tethered heavier than air flight, heavier-than-air or lighter-than-air craft with wing surfaces that react against the air to create Lift (force), lift and Drag (physics), drag forces. A kite consists of wings, tethers and anchors. ...
flying from rooftops is a part of the celebration on Krishna Janmashtami.
Eastern and Northeastern India
Janmashtami is widely celebrated by Hindu Vaishnava communities of eastern and northeastern India. The widespread tradition of celebrating Krishna in these regions is credited to the efforts and teachings of 15th and 16th century
Sankardev
Srimanta Sankardev( শ্ৰীমন্ত শংকৰদেৱ )(; ; 1449–1568) was a 15th–16th century Assamese polymath; a saint-scholar, poet, playwright, dancer, actor, musician, artist social-religious reformer and a figure of im ...
a and
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (; born Vishvambhar Mishra) was a 15th-century Indian saint who is considered to be the combined avatar of Radha and Krishna by his disciples and various scriptures. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's mode of worshipping Krishna ...
. They developed philosophical ideas, as well as new forms of performance arts to celebrate the Hindu god Krishna such as
Borgeet
Borgeets ( as, বৰগীত, lit=songs celestial, translit=Borgeet) are a collection of lyrical songs that are set to specific ragas but not necessarily to any tala. These songs, composed by Srimanta Sankardeva and Madhavdeva in the 15th- ...
,
Ankia Naat
Ankia Naats ( as, অংকীয়া নাট) are a class of one act plays performed in Assam, India. The invention of the Ankia Naat is usually attributed to the medieval saint and social reformer Srimanta Sankardeva. These plays were writt ...
,
Sattriya
''Sattriya'' ( as, সত্ৰীয়া), or ''Sattriya Nritya'', is a major Indian classical dance. This dance was initially created as part of Bhaona which are performances of '' Ankiya Nat'', one-act plays, originally created by Sankard ...
and
Bhakti yoga
Bhakti yoga ( sa, भक्ति योग), also called Bhakti marga (, literally the path of ''Bhakti''), is a spiritual path or spiritual practice within Hinduism focused on loving devotion towards any personal deity.Karen Pechelis (2014), ...
now popular in West Bengal and Assam. Further east, Manipur people developed
Manipuri dance
, image =
, alt =
, caption = An illustration of the ''Manipuri Raas Leela'' dance, being depicted in a stamp from Armenia; transliterations of "Jagoi Raas" and "Manipuri Raas Leela", the terms in Meitei language (offi ...
form, a classical dance form known for its Hindu
Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
themes, and which like Sattriya includes love-inspired dance drama arts of Radha-Krishna called
Raslila
The rasalila (), also rendered the raslila or the ras dance, is part of the traditional story of Krishna described in Hindu scriptures such as the Bhagavata Purana and literature such as the Gita Govinda, where he dances with Radha and the gopis ...
.
These dance drama arts are a part of Janmashtami tradition in these regions, and as with all classical Indian dances, their contextual roots are in the ancient Hindu Sanskrit text ''
Natya Shastra
The ''Nāṭya Śāstra'' (, ''Nāṭyaśāstra'') is a Sanskrit treatise on the performing arts. The text is attributed to sage Bharata Muni, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary ...
'', but with influences from the culture fusion between India and southeast Asia.
![Rasa Lila in Manipuri dance style](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Rasa_Lila_in_Manipuri_dance_style.jpg)
On Janmashtami, parents dress up their children as characters in the legends of Krishna, such as
gopi
Gopi ( sa, गोपी, ) or Gopika in Hinduism are worshipped as the consorts and devotees of Krishna within the Vaishnavism and Krishnaism traditions for their unconditional love and devotion ('' Bhakti'') to god Krishna as described in the ...
s and as Krishna. Temples and community centers are decorated with regional flowers and leaves, while groups recite or listen to the tenth chapter of ''
Bhagavata Purana
The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in Sa ...
'', and the ''
Bhagavata Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700-Sanskrit prosody, verse Hindu texts, Hindu scripture that is part o ...
''.
Janmashtami is a major festival celebrated with fasts, vigil, recitation of scriptures and Krishna prayers in Manipur. Dancers performing
Raslila
The rasalila (), also rendered the raslila or the ras dance, is part of the traditional story of Krishna described in Hindu scriptures such as the Bhagavata Purana and literature such as the Gita Govinda, where he dances with Radha and the gopis ...
are a notable annual tradition during Janmashtami in Mathura and Vrindavan. Children play the ''Likol Sannaba'' game in the Meetei Vaishnava community.
The
Shree Govindajee Temple
Shree Govindajee Temple ( mni, , Shri Shri Govindajee Laishang) is the largest Vaishnava temple in Imphal district of Manipur, India. The temple is dedicated to Hindu deities Radha Krishna ( Govindaji). It was originally built in 1846 during th ...
and the ISKCON temples particularly mark the Janmashtami festival.
[Janmashtami joy in Assam and Manipur]
The Times of India (26 August 2016) Janmashtami is celebrated in Assam at homes, in community centers called
Namghar
Namghars ( as, নামঘৰ) literally ''Prayer House'' are places for congregational worship associated with the entire Assamese community and the Ekasarana sect of Hinduism, in particular, that is native to Assam. Besides forming the primary ...
s (Assamese: নামঘৰ), and the temples usually though Janmashtami. According to the tradition, the devotees sing the ''Nam'', perform pujas and sharing food and ''Prasada''.
Odisha and West Bengal
![A Hindu baby being dressed up as Krishna for the Janmashtami festival](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/A_Hindu_baby_being_dressed_up_as_Krishna_for_the_Janmashtami_festival.jpg)
In the eastern state of
Odisha
Odisha (English: , ), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is an Indian state located in Eastern India. It is the 8th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population. The state has the third largest population of ...
, specifically the region around
Puri
Puri () is a coastal city and a Nagar Palika, municipality in the state of Odisha in eastern India. It is the district headquarters of Puri district and is situated on the Bay of Bengal, south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is als ...
and in
Nabadwip
Nabadwip (), also spelt Navadwip, anciently Nadia or Nudiya, is a heritage city in Nadia district in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is regarded as a holy place by Hindus, and is the birthplace of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. Famous for Rass fest ...
, West Bengal, the festival is also referred to as ''Sri Krishna Jayanti'' or simply ''Sri Jayanti''. People celebrate Janmashtami by fasting and worship until midnight. The ''Bhagavata Purana'' is recited from the 10th chapter, a section dedicated to the life of
Krishna
Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
. The next day is called "Nanda Ucchhaba" or the joyous celebration of Krishna's foster parents
Nanda
Nanda may refer to:
Indian history and religion
* Nanda Empire, ruled by the Nanda dynasty, an Indian royal dynasty ruling Magadha in the 4th century BCE
** Mahapadma Nanda, first Emperor of the Nanda Empire
** Dhana Nanda (died c. 321 BCE), last ...
and
Yashoda
Yashoda ( sa, यशोदा, translit=Yaśodā) is the foster-mother of Krishna and the wife of Nanda Baba, Nanda. She is described in the Puranic texts of Hinduism as the wife of Nanda Baba, Nanda, the chieftain of Gokul, Gokulam, and the siste ...
. Devotees keep
fasting
Fasting is the abstention from eating and sometimes drinking. From a purely physiological context, "fasting" may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight (see " Breakfast"), or to the metabolic state achieved after ...
during the entire day of Janmashtami. They bring water from
Ganga
The Ganges ( ) (in India: Ganga ( ); in Bangladesh: Padma ( )). "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international river to which India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China are the riparian states." is ...
to bathe Radha Madhaba during their abhisheka
ceremony
A ceremony (, ) is a unified ritualistic event with a purpose, usually consisting of a number of artistic components, performed on a special occasion.
The word may be of Etruscan origin, via the Latin '' caerimonia''.
Church and civil (secular) ...
. A grand abhisheka is performed at midnight for the small Radha Madha.
Outside India
Nepal
![Patan-Krishna Mandir-02-Garudasaeule-Vishveshvara-Bhimsen-gje](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Patan-Krishna_Mandir-02-Garudasaeule-Vishveshvara-Bhimsen-gje.jpg)
About eighty percent of the population of
Nepal
Nepal (; ne, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne,
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mai ...
identify themselves as Hindus and celebrate Krishna Janmashtami. They observe Janmashtami by fasting until midnight. It is a national holiday in Nepal. The devotees recite the
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...
and sing religious songs called bhajans and kirtans. The temples of Krishna are decorated. Shops, posters and houses carry Krishna motifs.
Bangladesh
Janmashtami is a
national holiday in Bangladesh.
On Janmashtami, a procession starts from
Dhakeshwari Temple
Dhakeshwari National Temple ( bn, ঢাকেশ্বরী জাতীয় মন্দির, , translit=''Ðhakeshshori Jatio Mondir'') is a Hindu temple in Dhaka, Bangladesh. It is state-owned, giving it the distinction of being Bangla ...
in
Dhaka
Dhaka ( or ; bn, ঢাকা, Ḍhākā, ), formerly known as Dacca, is the capital and largest city of Bangladesh, as well as the world's largest Bengali-speaking city. It is the eighth largest and sixth most densely populated city ...
, the National Temple of Bangladesh, and then proceeds through the streets of
Old Dhaka
Old Dhaka ( bn, পুরান ঢাকা, Puran Dhaka) is a term used to refer to the historic old city of Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh. It was founded in 1608 as Jahangirabad or Jahangirnagar ( bn, জাহাঙ্গীরনগ ...
. The procession dates back to 1902, but was stopped in 1948. The procession was resumed in 1989.
Fiji
At least a quarter of the population in
Fiji
Fiji ( , ,; fj, Viti, ; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी, ''Fijī''), officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies about north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji consists ...
practices Hinduism, and this holiday has been celebrated in Fiji since the first Indian indentured laborers landed there. Janmashtami in Fiji is known as "Krishna Ashtami". Most Hindus in Fiji have ancestors that originated from
Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh (; , 'Northern Province') is a state in northern India. With over 200 million inhabitants, it is the most populated state in India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. It was established in 1950 ...
, Bihar, and
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a States and union territories of India, state in southern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by area, tenth largest Indian state by area and the List of states and union territories of India ...
, making this an especially important festival for them. Fiji's Janmashtami celebrations are unique in that they last for eight days, leading up to the eighth day, the day Krishna was born. During these eight days, Hindus gather at homes and at temples with their 'mandalis,' or devotional groups at evenings and night, and recite the
Bhagavat Purana
The ''Bhagavata Purana'' ( sa, भागवतपुराण; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' or simply ''Bhagavata'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen great Puranas (''Mahapuranas''). Composed in Sa ...
, sing devotional songs for Krishna, and distribute Prasadam.
Pakistan
Janmashtami is celebrated by
Pakistani Hindus
Hinduism is the second largest religious affiliation in Pakistan after Islam. While Hinduism was one of the dominant faiths in the region a few centuries back, today Hindus account for 2.14% of Pakistan's population or 4.4 million people accor ...
in the
Shri Swaminarayan Mandir
Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday, established temples, known as ''mandirs'' (Devnagari: मन्दिर), as part of his philosophy of theism and deity worship. These mandirs are known as Swaminarayan Hindu temples.
He ...
in
Karachi
Karachi (; ur, ; ; ) is the most populous city in Pakistan and 12th most populous city in the world, with a population of over 20 million. It is situated at the southern tip of the country along the Arabian Sea coast. It is the former cap ...
with the singing of
bhajans
Bhajan refers to any devotional song with a religious theme or spiritual ideas, specifically among Indian religions, in any language. The term bhajanam (Sanskrit: भजनम्) means ''reverence'' and originates from the root word ''bhaj'' ...
and delivering of sermons on Krishna. It is an optional holiday in Pakistan
Réunion
Among the
Malbars
Malbars or Malabars are an ethnic group of South Indian Tamil origin in Réunion, a French island in the Southwest Indian Ocean, The Malbars constitute 25% of the population of Réunion and are estimated to be around 180,000.
There have been pe ...
of the French island
Réunion
Réunion (; french: La Réunion, ; previously ''Île Bourbon''; rcf, label= Reunionese Creole, La Rényon) is an island in the Indian Ocean that is an overseas department and region of France. It is located approximately east of the island ...
, a syncretism of Catholicism and
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
can develop.
Janmashtami is considered to be the date of birth of
Jesus Christ
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...
.
Mauritius
60% of the population is of Indian origins from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, the majority of which more than 80% being hindus. This has been reinforced by
Gujrati,
Sindhi traders plus now with foreign IT consultants from India and workers from Sri Lanka. Krishna has been revered here since the 18th century by those indentured labourers of different castes who identified themselves as Jahazi bhais. They celebrate the festival with kirtans, and sweets. Dramas, plays, and kirtans illustrating the life of Krishna are played on television.
Others
In
Arizona
Arizona ( ; nv, Hoozdo Hahoodzo ; ood, Alĭ ṣonak ) is a state in the Southwestern United States. It is the 6th largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix. Arizona is part of the Fou ...
, United States, Governor
Janet Napolitano
Janet Ann Napolitano (; born November 29, 1957) is an American politician, lawyer, and university administrator who served as the 21st governor of Arizona from 2003 to 2009 and third United States secretary of homeland security from 2009 to 20 ...
was the first American leader to greet a message on Janmashtami, while acknowledging ISKCON.
Executive Orders, Proclamations of General Applicability, and Statements Issues by the Governor Pursuant to A.R.S. § 41-1013(B)(3)
Arizona State Government, USA (2008) The festival is also celebrated widely by Hindus in Caribbean
The Caribbean (, ) ( es, El Caribe; french: la Caraïbe; ht, Karayib; nl, De Caraïben) is a region of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Se ...
in the countries of Guyana
Guyana ( or ), officially the Cooperative Republic of Guyana, is a country on the northern mainland of South America. Guyana is an indigenous word which means "Land of Many Waters". The capital city is Georgetown. Guyana is bordered by the ...
, Trinidad and Tobago
Trinidad and Tobago (, ), officially the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, is the southernmost island country in the Caribbean. Consisting of the main islands Trinidad and Tobago, and numerous much smaller islands, it is situated south of ...
, Jamaica
Jamaica (; ) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning in area, it is the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean (after Cuba and Hispaniola). Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, and west of His ...
and the former British colony Fiji as well as the former Dutch colony of Suriname
Suriname (; srn, Sranankondre or ), officially the Republic of Suriname ( nl, Republiek Suriname , srn, Ripolik fu Sranan), is a country on the northeastern Atlantic coast of South America. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north ...
. Many Hindus in these countries originate from Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar; descendants of indentured immigrants from Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal, and Orissa.
ISKCON
The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), known colloquially as the Hare Krishna movement or Hare Krishnas, is a Gaudiya Vaishnava Hindu religious organization. ISKCON was founded in 1966 in New York City by A. C. Bhaktive ...
temples worldwide celebrate Krishna Janmashtami, as well the birthday of ISKCON founder-acharya A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada
Abhay Charanaravinda Bhaktivedanta Swami (; 1 September 1896 – 14 November 1977) was an Indian Gaudiya Vaishnava guru who founded ISKCON, commonly known as the "Hare Krishna movement". Members of ISKCON view Bhaktivedanta Swami as a repr ...
, which falls on the following day according to the Vaishnava calendar.
See also
* Krishna Janmasthan Temple Complex
The Krishna Janmasthan Temple Complex is a group of Hindu temples in Mallapura, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India. These temples are built at the location where the Hindu deity Krishna is believed to be born, and is adjacent to the Shahi Eidgah mosq ...
* Radhashtami
Radhashtami is a Hindu holy day commemorating the birth anniversary of the goddess Radha, the chief consort of the god Krishna. It is celebrated with great fervor in her birthplace Barsana and the entire Braj region on the eighth day (Ashtam ...
* Jai Shri Krishna
Jai Shri Krishna (or Jai Shree Krishna) is a Sanskrit expression, translating to "Victory to Krishna", a major deity in Hinduism. The salutation is believed to have hailed from the Vaishnavites. The expression is said to greet another person w ...
* Vesak
Vesak (Pali: ''Vesākha''; sa, Vaiśākha), also known as Buddha Jayanti, Buddha Purnima and Buddha Day, is a holiday traditionally observed by Buddhism, Buddhists in South Asia and Southeast Asia as well as Tibet and Mongolia. The festival ...
* Bhadrapad
Bhadra or Bhadrapada or Bhādo or Bhadraba
(Bengali: ভাদ্র ''bhādro''; )
(Hindi: भादों ''bhādo''; )(Sanskrit: भाद्रपद ''bhādrapada'';) ( ne, भाद्र ''Bhādra'';) ( or, ଭାଦ୍ରବ ''Bhadraba;' ...
* Radha Krishna
Radha-Krishna (IAST , sa, राधा कृष्ण) are collectively known within Hinduism as the combined forms of feminine as well as the masculine realities of God. Krishna and Radha are the primeval forms of God and his pleasure potenc ...
References
Citations
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
*
External links
*
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