The is a Japanese
plucked half-tube zither instrument, and the national instrument of Japan. It is derived from the Chinese and , and similar to the Mongolian , the Korean and , the Vietnamese , the
Sundanese
Sundanese may refer to:
* Sundanese people
* Sundanese language
* Sundanese script
Standard Sundanese script (''Aksara Sunda Baku'', ) is a writing system which is used by the Sundanese people. It is built based on Old Sundanese script (' ...
and the
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan, officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country located mainly in Central Asia and partly in Eastern Europe. It borders Russia to the north and west, China to the east, Kyrgyzstan to the southeast, Uzbeki ...
.
Koto are roughly in length, and made from
Paulownia wood (''
Paulownia tomentosa
''Paulownia tomentosa'', common names princess tree, empress tree, or foxglove-tree, is a deciduous hardwood tree in the family Paulowniaceae, native to central and western China. It is an extremely fast-growing tree with seeds that disperse rea ...
'', known as ). The most common type uses 13 strings strung over movable
bridges
A bridge is a structure built to span a physical obstacle (such as a body of water, valley, road, or rail) without blocking the way underneath. It is constructed for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle, which is usually someth ...
used for tuning, different pieces possibly requiring different tuning.
17-string koto are also common, and act as
bass in ensembles. Koto strings are generally plucked using three
fingerpicks
A fingerpick is a type of plectrum used most commonly for playing bluegrass style banjo music. Most fingerpicks are composed of metal or plastic (usually Celluloid or Delrin). Unlike flat guitar picks, which are held between the thumb and fin ...
(), worn on the first three fingers of the right hand.
Names and types
The character for ''koto'' is , although is often used. However, (''koto'') is the general term for all string instruments in the Japanese language,
[(ja]
Kotobank koto
/ref> including instruments such as the , , , , , and so on. When read as , it indicates the Chinese instrument . The term is used today in the same way.
The term ''koto'' appears in the in reference to an ancient string instrument in this usage. Variations of the instrument were eventually created, and eventually a few of them would become the standard variations for modern day koto. The four types of koto () were all created by different subcultures, but also adapted to change the playing style.
History
The ancestor of the koto was the Chinese . It was first introduced to Japan from China in the 7th and 8th century. The first known version had five strings, which eventually increased to seven strings. The Japanese koto belongs to the Asian zither family that also comprises the Chinese (ancestral to the other zither
Zithers (; , from the Greek word ''cithara'') are a class of stringed instruments. Historically, the name has been applied to any instrument of the psaltery family, or to an instrument consisting of many strings stretched across a thin, flat ...
s in the family), the Korean , and the Vietnamese . This variety of instrument came in two basic forms, a zither that had bridges and a zither without bridges.
When the koto was first imported to Japan, the native word koto was a generic term for any and all Japanese stringed instruments. As the number of different stringed instruments in Japan grew, the once-basic definition of koto could not describe the wide variety of these instruments and so the meanings changed. The or was called the , the was called the , and the ( being an older pronunciation of ) was called the or koto.
The modern koto originates from the used in Japanese court music (). It was a popular instrument among the wealthy; the instrument was considered a romantic one. Some literary and historical records indicate that solo pieces for koto existed centuries before , the music of the solo koto genre, was established. According to Japanese literature, the koto was used as imagery and other extra music significance. In one part of '' The Tale of Genji'', the titular character
The title character in a narrative work is one who is named or referred to in the title of the work. In a performed work such as a play or film, the performer who plays the title character is said to have the title role of the piece. The title of ...
falls deeply in love with a mysterious woman whom he has never seen before, after hearing her playing the koto from a distance.
The koto of the was made for the tradition, originally intended only for blind men. Women were forbidden from playing the instrument in the professional world, nor were they allowed to teach it. When these strict rules were relieved, women began to play the koto, with the exception of the , as its design for the blind led to a decline in use; other koto proved more useful. The two main koto varieties still used today are the and . These two have relatively stayed the same, with the exception of material innovations such as the use plastic, as well as modern material for the strings. The is the newest addition to the koto family, surfacing in the 19th century. It was purposefully created to extend the range of the instrument and advance the style of play. These were made with 17, 21, and 31 strings.
Perhaps the most important influence on the development of koto was Yatsuhashi Kengyo
Yatsuhashi Kengyō ( 八橋 検校; 1614–1685) was a Japanese musician and composer from Kyoto. The name kengyō is an honorary title given to highly skilled blind musicians.
Yatsuhashi, who was born and died in Japan, was originally a p ...
(1614–1685). Yatsuhashi was a gifted blind musician from Kyoto
Kyoto (; Japanese language, Japanese: , ''Kyōto'' ), officially , is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in Japan. Located in the Kansai region on the island of Honshu, Kyoto forms a part of the Keihanshin, Keihanshin metropolitan area along wi ...
who vastly extended the limited selection of only six traditional koto songs to a brand-new style of koto music which he called . Yatsuhashi changed the tunings, which were based on the older ways of tuning; and with this change, a new style of koto was born. Yatsuhashi is now known as the "Father of Modern Koto".
A smaller influence in the evolution of the koto is found in the inspiration of a woman named Keiko Nosaka. Nosaka (a musician who won Grand Prize in Music from the Japanese Ministry of Culture in 2002), felt confined by playing a koto with just 13 strings, and created new versions of the instrument with 20 or more strings.
Japanese developments in bridgeless zithers include the one-stringed koto () and two-stringed koto ( or ). Around the 1920s, Goro Morita created a new version of the two-stringed koto. On this koto, one would push down buttons above the metal strings like the western autoharp. It was named the after the Taishō period.
At the beginning of the Meiji Period
The is an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868 to July 30, 1912.
The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonization ...
(1868–1912), Western music was introduced to Japan. Michio Miyagi
was a Japanese musician, famous for his '' koto'' playing.
He was born in Kobe. He lost his sight in 1902, when he was 8 years old, and started his study in koto under the guidance of Nakajima Kengyo II, dedicating the rest of his life to th ...
(1894–1956), a blind composer, innovator, and performer, is considered to have been the first Japanese composer to combine western music and traditional koto music. Miyagi is largely regarded as being responsible for keeping the koto alive when traditional Japanese arts were being forgotten and replaced by Westernization. He wrote over 300 new works for the instrument before his death in a train accident
Classification of railway accidents, both in terms of cause and effect, is a valuable aid in studying rail (and other) accidents to help to prevent similar ones occurring in the future. Systematic investigation for over 150 years has led to the r ...
at the age of 62. He also invented the popular 17-string bass koto, created new playing techniques, advanced traditional forms, and most importantly increased the koto's popularity. He performed abroad and by 1928 his piece for koto and , ("Spring Sea") had been transcribed for numerous instruments. is even played to welcome each New Year in Japan
The is an annual festival with its own customs. Since 1873, the official Japanese New Year has been celebrated according to the Gregorian calendar, on January 1 of each year, . However, some traditional events of the Japanese New Year are par ...
.
Since Miyagi's time, many composers such as Kimio Eto
(surname Etō, born 1924 in Ōita – died 24 December 2012) was a blind Japanese musician who played the ''koto''. He began musical training at the age of eight with the renowned master Michio Miyagi. When he was eleven, he composed his first ...
(1924–2012), Tadao Sawai
was a Japanese ''koto'' player and composer. He was renowned all over Japan for his skill at the koto and also received acclaim for his compositions. He was married to Kazue Sawai, also a koto player, and their son Hikaru Sawai is also a musician ...
(1937–1997) have written and performed works that continue to advance the instrument. Sawai's widow Kazue Sawai is a Japanese '' koto'' player noted for her performance of contemporary classical music and free improvisation.
She began studying, at the age of eight, with Michio Miyagi. She later graduated from the Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and ...
, who as a child was Miyagi's favored disciple, has been the largest driving force behind the internationalization and modernization of the koto. Her arrangement of composer John Cage's prepared piano duet "Three Dances
3 is a number, numeral, and glyph.
3, three, or III may also refer to:
* AD 3, the third year of the AD era
* 3 BC, the third year before the AD era
* March, the third month
Books
* '' Three of Them'' (Russian: ', literally, "three"), a 190 ...
" for four prepared bass koto was a landmark in the modern era of koto music.
For about 150 years after the Meiji Restoration, the Japanese shirked their isolationist ideals and began to openly embrace American and European influences, the most likely explanation for why the koto has taken on many different variations of itself.
Construction
A koto is typically made of Paulownia
''Paulownia'' ( ) is a genus of seven to 17 species of hardwood tree (depending on taxonomic authority) in the family Paulowniaceae, the order Lamiales. They are present in much of China, south to northern Laos and Vietnam and are long cultivat ...
wood (known as ), although treatment of the wood varies tremendously between artisans. A koto may or may not be adorned. Adornments include inlays of ivory and ebony, tortoise shell, metal figures, etc. The wood is also cut into two patterns, (also called ), which has a swirling pattern, or straight-lined . The straight lined pattern is easier to manufacture, so the swirl raises the cost of production, and is therefore reserved for decorative and elegant models.
The body of a traditional koto is made of Paulownia wood. Every piece of the instrument comes with cultural significance, especially since the koto is the national instrument. The wood is dried and cut into precise measurements. The size of the soundboard on a standard modern koto has remained approximately , where in the past it ranged from .
The bridges () used to be made of ivory
Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals i ...
, but nowadays are typically made of plastic, and occasionally made of wood. One can alter the pitch of a string by manipulating or moving the bridge. For some very low notes, there are small bridges made, as well as specialty bridges with three different heights, depending on the need of the tuning. When a small bridge is unavailable for some very low notes, some players may, as an emergency measure, use a bridge upside down, though this is unstable and not ideal. Bridges have been known to break during playing, and with some older instruments which have the surface where the bridges rest being worn due to much use, the bridges may fall during playing, especially when pressing strings. There are, of course, various sorts of patch materials sold to fill the holes which cause the legs of a bridge to rest on an unstable area. About long and wide, the koto is traditionally placed on the floor in front of the player, who kneels.
The strings are made from a variety of materials. Various types of plastic strings are popular. Silk
Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the ...
strings, typically yellow in color, are still made, despite their higher price and lower durability than modern strings; some musicians prefer them, perceiving a difference in sound quality to modern strings. The strings are tied with a half hitch
The half hitch is a simple overhand knot, where the working end of a line is brought over and under the standing part. Insecure on its own, it is a valuable component of a wide variety of useful and reliable hitches, bends, and knot
A kno ...
to a roll of paper or cardboard, about the size of a cigarette butt, strung through the holes at the head of the koto, threaded through the holes at the back, tightened, and tied with a special knot. Strings can be tightened by a special machine, but often are tightened by hand, and then tied. One can tighten by pulling the string from behind, or sitting at the side of the koto, although the latter is much harder and requires much arm strength. Some instruments may have tuning pins (like a piano) installed, to make tuning easier.
The , the silk thread used in the instrument, is a pivotal part of its construction. This feature was not seen on the speculated nobility-style instruments because they used a more tension of theirs and valued the relict nature of their instruments. The commoners did all the innovations that made the koto not only a sturdy instrument, but more sonically adept. The was used in paper so the fine silk was in abundance in Japan. As of the beginning of the 19th century, an ivory called became the standard for the koto.
For every part of the koto, there is a traditional name which connects with the opinion that the body of a koto resembles that of a dragon. Thus, the top part is called the , while the bottom part is called the . One end of the koto, noticeable because of the removable colorful fabricshell, is known as the , consisting of parts such as the – the saddle of the bridge
A bridge is a structure built to span a physical obstacle (such as a body of water, valley, road, or rail) without blocking the way underneath. It is constructed for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle, which is usually somethi ...
or the – , and – the space above the . The other end of the koto is called the ; the string nut is called the .
Koto today
The influence of Western pop music has made the koto less prominent in Japan, although it is still developing as an instrument. The 17-string bass koto () has become more prominent over the years since its development by Michio Miyagi
was a Japanese musician, famous for his '' koto'' playing.
He was born in Kobe. He lost his sight in 1902, when he was 8 years old, and started his study in koto under the guidance of Nakajima Kengyo II, dedicating the rest of his life to th ...
. There are also 20-, 21-, and 25-string koto. Works are being written for 20- and 25-string koto and 17-string bass koto. Reiko Obata
Reiko Obata is a Japanese-American koto performer and composer, based in Southern California, United States.
Background
Reiko Obata began studying koto in 1980 after studying flute and piano as a child. She studied koto under masters in the Uni ...
has also made the koto accessible to Western music readers with the publication of two books for solo koto using Western notation. The current generation of koto players, such as American performers Reiko Obata
Reiko Obata is a Japanese-American koto performer and composer, based in Southern California, United States.
Background
Reiko Obata began studying koto in 1980 after studying flute and piano as a child. She studied koto under masters in the Uni ...
and Miya Masaoka
Miya Masaoka (born 1958, Washington, DC) is an American composer, musician, and sound artist active in the field of contemporary classical music and experimental music. Her work encompasses contemporary classical composition, improvisation, ele ...
, Japanese master Kazue Sawai is a Japanese '' koto'' player noted for her performance of contemporary classical music and free improvisation.
She began studying, at the age of eight, with Michio Miyagi. She later graduated from the Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and ...
, and Michiyo Yagi
, a Japanese musician who studied koto under Tadao Sawai, Kazue Sawai and Satomi Kurauchi, and graduated from the NHK Professional Training School for Traditional Musicians. Between 1989 and 1990, during her tenure as visiting professor of mu ...
, are finding places for the koto in today's jazz
Jazz is a music genre that originated in the African-American communities of New Orleans, Louisiana in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with its roots in blues and ragtime. Since the 1920s Jazz Age, it has been recognized as a m ...
, experimental music and even pop music
Pop music is a genre of popular music that originated in its modern form during the mid-1950s in the United States and the United Kingdom. The terms ''popular music'' and ''pop music'' are often used interchangeably, although the former descri ...
. The members of the band Rin'
Rin' is an all-female Japanese pop group which combines traditional Japanese musical instruments and style with elements of modern pop and rock music. It is a female trio of Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music alumni who graduated in ...
are popular 17-string koto players in the modern music scene.
June Kuramoto of the jazz fusion group Hiroshima was one of the first koto performers to popularize the koto in a non-traditional fusion style. Reiko Obata, founder of East West Jazz, was the first to perform and record an album of jazz standards featuring the koto. Obata also produced the first-ever English language koto instructional DVD, titled "You Can Play Koto". Obata is one of the few koto performers to perform concertos with United States orchestras, having done so on multiple occasions, including with Orchestra Nova for San Diego's KPBS in 2010.
Other solo performers outside Japan include award-winning recording artist Elizabeth Falconer, who also studied for a decade at the Sawai Koto School in Tokyo, and Linda Kako Caplan, Canadian (grandmaster) and member of Fukuoka's Chikushi Koto School for over two decades. Another Sawai disciple, Masayo Ishigure, holds down a school in New York City
New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the most densely populated major city in the Un ...
. Yukiko Matsuyama leads her KotoYuki band in Los Angeles. Her compositions blend the timbres of world music with her native Japanese culture. She performed on the Grammy-winning album '' Miho: Journey to the Mountain'' (2010) by the Paul Winter Consort
The Paul Winter Consort is an American musical group. Bassist Eliot Wadopian has been a member.
Discography
Films
*''Canyon Consort'' (1985)
References
External linksLiving Music- Paul Winter's record label
{{Authority control
American j ...
, garnering additional exposure to Western audiences for the instrument. In November 2011, worldwide audiences were further exposed to the koto when she performed with Shakira
Shakira Isabel Mebarak Ripoll ( , ; born 2 February 1977), professionally known by the mononym Shakira, is a Colombian singer and songwriter. Born and raised in Barranquilla, she has been referred to as the " Queen of Latin Music" and is n ...
at the Latin Grammy Awards.
In March 2010, the koto received widespread international attention when a video linked by the Grammy Award-winning hard rock band Tool
A tool is an object that can extend an individual's ability to modify features of the surrounding environment or help them accomplish a particular task. Although many animals use simple tools, only human beings, whose use of stone tools dates ba ...
on its website became a viral hit. The video showed Tokyo-based ensemble Soemon playing member Brett Larner's arrangement of the Tool song "Lateralus
''Lateralus'' () is the third studio album by American rock band Tool. It was released on May 15, 2001, through Volcano Entertainment. The album was recorded at Cello Studios in Hollywood and The Hook, Big Empty Space, and The Lodge, in Nor ...
" for six bass and two bass koto. Larner had previously played koto with John Fahey, Jim O'Rourke, and members of indie rock groups including Camper Van Beethoven, Deerhoof
Deerhoof are an American musical group formed in San Francisco in 1994. They currently consist of founding drummer Greg Saunier, bassist and singer Satomi Matsuzaki, and guitarists John Dieterich and Ed Rodriguez. Beginning as an improvised no ...
, Jackie O Motherfucker, and Mr. Bungle
Mr. Bungle is an American experimental rock band formed in Eureka, California in 1985. Having gone through many incarnations throughout their career, the band is best known for music created during their most experimental era. During this time, ...
.
In older pop and rock music, David Bowie
David Robert Jones (8 January 194710 January 2016), known professionally as David Bowie ( ), was an English singer-songwriter and actor. A leading figure in the music industry, he is regarded as one of the most influential musicians of the ...
used a koto in the instrumental piece " Moss Garden" on his album '' "Heroes"'' (1977). The multi-instrumentalist, founder, and former guitarist of The Rolling Stones
The Rolling Stones are an English Rock music, rock band formed in London in 1962. Active for six decades, they are one of the most popular and enduring bands of the album era, rock era. In the early 1960s, the Rolling Stones pioneered the g ...
Brian Jones
Lewis Brian Hopkin Jones (28 February 1942 – 3 July 1969) was an English multi-instrumentalist and singer best known as the founder, rhythm/lead guitarist, and original leader of the Rolling Stones. Initially a guitarist, he went on to prov ...
played the koto in the song " Take It Or Leave It" on the album ''Aftermath
Aftermath may refer to:
Companies
* Aftermath (comics), an imprint of Devil's Due Publishing
* Aftermath Entertainment, an American record label founded by Dr. Dre
* Aftermath Media, an American multimedia company
* Aftermath Services, an America ...
'' (1966).
Paul Gilbert, a popular guitar virtuoso
A virtuoso (from Italian ''virtuoso'' or , "virtuous", Late Latin ''virtuosus'', Latin ''virtus'', "virtue", "excellence" or "skill") is an individual who possesses outstanding talent and technical ability in a particular art or field such as ...
, recorded his wife Emi playing the koto on his song "Koto Girl" from the album ''Alligator Farm'' (2000). Rock band Kagrra,
was a Japanese visual kei folk rock band. They were originally signed to the now defunct Key Party Records under the name "Crow". The group changed its name when they signed to PS Company in 2000.
History
The band's major debut was in 2004 wit ...
are well known for using traditional Japanese musical instruments in many of their songs, an example being , a song in which the koto has a prominent place. Winston Tong
Winston Tong (born 1951 in San Francisco, California) is an actor, playwright, visual artist, puppeteer, and singer-songwriter. He is best known for his vocals in Tuxedomoon and for winning an Obie award in puppetry for ''Bound Feet'' in 1978.
E ...
, the singer of Tuxedomoon
Tuxedomoon is an experimental, post-punk, new wave band from San Francisco, California, United States. The band formed in the late 1970s at the beginning of the punk rock movement. Pulling influence from punk and electronic music, the group, or ...
, uses it on his 15-minute song "The Hunger" from his debut solo album '' Theoretically Chinese'' (1985).
The rock
Rock most often refers to:
* Rock (geology), a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals or mineraloids
* Rock music, a genre of popular music
Rock or Rocks may also refer to:
Places United Kingdom
* Rock, Caerphilly, a location in Wales ...
band Queen
Queen or QUEEN may refer to:
Monarchy
* Queen regnant, a female monarch of a Kingdom
** List of queens regnant
* Queen consort, the wife of a reigning king
* Queen dowager, the widow of a king
* Queen mother, a queen dowager who is the mother ...
used a (toy) koto in "The Prophet's Song
"The Prophet's Song" is a song by the British rock band Queen, written by their guitarist Brian May, originally released on their fourth studio album '' A Night at the Opera'' in 1975.
Background
"The Prophet's Song" was composed by Brian May ...
" on their 1975 album '' A Night at the Opera''. Ex-Genesis
Genesis may refer to:
Bible
* Book of Genesis, the first book of the biblical scriptures of both Judaism and Christianity, describing the creation of the Earth and of mankind
* Genesis creation narrative, the first several chapters of the Book of ...
guitarist Steve Hackett
Stephen Richard Hackett (born 12 February 1950) is an English musician, singer, songwriter and record producer who gained prominence as the lead guitarist of the progressive rock band Genesis from 1971 to 1977. Hackett contributed to six Genesis ...
used a koto on the instrumental song "The Red Flower of Tachai Blooms Everywhere" from the album ''Spectral Mornings
''Spectral Mornings'' is the third studio album by English guitarist and songwriter Steve Hackett, released in May 1979 on Charisma Records. It is his first to feature members of his touring band, which many Hackett fans consider as the "classic ...
'' (1979), and Genesis
Genesis may refer to:
Bible
* Book of Genesis, the first book of the biblical scriptures of both Judaism and Christianity, describing the creation of the Earth and of mankind
* Genesis creation narrative, the first several chapters of the Book of ...
keyboardist Tony Banks sampled a koto using an Emulator
In computing, an emulator is hardware or software that enables one computer system (called the ''host'') to behave like another computer system (called the ''guest''). An emulator typically enables the host system to run software or use pe ...
keyboard for the band's song "Mama
Mama(s) or Mamma or Momma may refer to:
Roles
*Mother, a female parent
* Mama-san, in Japan and East Asia, a woman in a position of authority
*Mamas, a name for female associates of the Hells Angels
Places
*Mama, Russia, an urban-type settlement ...
". A koto played by Hazel Payne is featured in A Taste of Honey's 1981 English cover of the Japanese song " Sukiyaki". A synthesized koto appears in their cover of The Miracles
The Miracles (also known as Smokey Robinson and the Miracles from 1965 to 1972) were an American vocal group that was the first successful recording act for Berry Gordy's Motown Records, and one of the most important and most influential group ...
' " I'll Try Something New". Steve Howe
Stephen James Howe (born 8 April 1947) is an English musician, best known as the guitarist in the progressive rock band Yes across three stints since 1970. Born in Holloway, North London, Howe developed an interest in the guitar and began to le ...
used a koto in the instrumental break of Asia
Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...
's single " Heat of the Moment", from their self-titled 1982 album. Howe also played a koto on the Yes song "It Will Be a Good Day (The River)", from the 1999 album '' The Ladder''.
Dr. Dre
Andre Romelle Young (born February 18, 1965), known professionally as Dr. Dre, is an American rapper and record producer. He is the founder and CEO of Aftermath Entertainment and Beats Electronics, and previously co-founded, co-owned, and ...
's 1999 album '' 2001'' prominently features a synthesized koto on two of its tracks, " Still D.R.E." and "The Message". A 2020 acoustic cover of Led Zeppelin
Led Zeppelin were an English rock band formed in London in 1968. The group comprised vocalist Robert Plant, guitarist Jimmy Page, bassist/keyboardist John Paul Jones, and drummer John Bonham. With a heavy, guitar-driven sound, they are ci ...
's "The Battle of Evermore
"The Battle of Evermore" is a folk duet sung by Robert Plant and Sandy Denny, featured on Led Zeppelin's untitled 1971 album, commonly known as '' Led Zeppelin IV''. The song's instrumentation features acoustic guitar and mandolin playing, ...
" by PianoRock feat. Dean McNeill also prominently features a synthesized koto.
Recordings
* / ALM Records ALCD-76 (2008)
See also
* 17-string koto
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Notes
References
*Edmonds, Richard Louis et al
"Japan". Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. July 30, 2008.
*Johnson, H. (2004)
''The Koto: A Traditional Instrument in Contemporary Japan.''
Amsterdam: Hotei.
*Malm, W. P. (2000). ''Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments.'' (Rev. ed.). New York, NY: Kodansha International.
*Sachs, C. (1940). ''The History of Musical Instruments.'' New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. Inc. Publishers.
Further reading
The : A Traditional Instrument in Contemporary Japan
by Henry Johnson (, 2004)
*The and Traditions of Japanese Music, by Willem Adriaansz (University of California Press, 1973)
External links
at The Metropolitan Museum of Art
The Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York City, colloquially "the Met", is the largest art museum in the Americas. Its permanent collection contains over two million works, divided among 17 curatorial departments. The main building at 1000 ...
Koto no Koto
– Koto no koto: the website with general information
{{DEFAULTSORT:Koto
Zithers
Japanese musical instruments
Koto players
Japanese words and phrases