Kung Hsiang-hsi (; 11 September 1881 – 16 August 1967), often known as Dr. H. H. Kung, was a Chinese
banker
A bank is a financial institution that accepts deposits from the public and creates a demand deposit while simultaneously making loans. Lending activities can be directly performed by the bank or indirectly through capital markets.
Becaus ...
and
politician
A politician is a person active in party politics, or a person holding or seeking an elected office in government. Politicians propose, support, reject and create laws that govern the land and by an extension of its people. Broadly speaking ...
in the early 20th century. He married
Soong Ai-ling
Soong Ai-ling (), legally Soong E-ling or Eling Soong (July 15, 1889 – October 18, 1973) was a Chinese businesswoman, the eldest of the Soong sisters and the wife of H. H. Kung (Kung Hsiang-Hsi), who was the richest man in the early 20th cent ...
, the eldest of the three
Soong sisters
The Soong sisters () were Soong Ai-ling, Soong Ching-ling, and Soong Mei-ling, three Shanghainese (of Hakka descent) Christian Chinese women who were, along with their husbands, amongst China's most significant political figures of the early ...
; the other two married
President
President most commonly refers to:
*President (corporate title)
* President (education), a leader of a college or university
* President (government title)
President may also refer to:
Automobiles
* Nissan President, a 1966–2010 Japanese ...
Sun Yat-sen and the latter
President
President most commonly refers to:
*President (corporate title)
* President (education), a leader of a college or university
* President (government title)
President may also refer to:
Automobiles
* Nissan President, a 1966–2010 Japanese ...
Chiang Kai-shek. Together with his brother-in-law,
Soong Tse-ven, he was highly influential in determining the economic policies of the
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang (KMT), also referred to as the Guomindang (GMD), the Nationalist Party of China (NPC) or the Chinese Nationalist Party (CNP), is a major political party in the Republic of China, initially on the Chinese mainland and in Tai ...
-led
Nationalist government of the
Republic of China in the 1930s and 1940s.
Biography
Early life
![Taigu Kong Xiangxi Jiuju 2013](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Taigu_Kong_Xiangxi_Jiuju_2013.08.27_09-37-13.jpg)
Kung was born during the late
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-spea ...
into a prosperous banking and trading family in
Taigu County
Taigu () is a district of Shanxi province, China under the administration of Jinzhong City. It is administratively into three town-level entities (Mingxing 明星镇, Hucun 胡村镇, and Fancun 范村镇), and six township-level entities ( Ho ...
,
Shanxi Province
Shanxi (; ; formerly romanised as Shansi) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the North China region. The capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-level ...
, where he attended a mission school in spite of his family's doubts. He then attended North China Union College in
Tongzhou, near
Beijing
}
Beijing ( ; ; ), alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the capital of the People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's most populous national capital city, with over 21 ...
, where he took courses in mathematics, physics and chemistry, subjects which were not offered in traditional Chinese schools. Upon hearing of the
Boxer attacks, he returned to Taigu, but his family prevented him from leaving the house. After the
Taiyuan Massacre, which included members of the
Oberlin Band, he carried letters from several of the murdered missionaries to Beijing by hiding them between the layers of his cloth shoes. Returning to Taigu, by using the powers of the
Boxer Indemnity, he distributed relief to the families of those killed, buried the dead, and confiscated the estate of a family which had supported the Boxers.
In the summer of 1901,
Luella Miner
Sarah Luella Miner (October 30, 1861 – December 2, 1935) was an American educator and Christian missionary in China. She founded and led the North China Union College for Women, China's first women's college.
Early life
Miner was born in Obe ...
, a missionary and Oberlin graduate, arranged for Kung to travel to Oberlin for further study. Upon landing in
San Francisco
San Francisco (; Spanish for " Saint Francis"), officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the commercial, financial, and cultural center of Northern California. The city proper is the fourth most populous in California and 17th ...
, however, because of the
Chinese Exclusion Act
The Chinese Exclusion Act was a United States federal law signed by President Chester A. Arthur on May 6, 1882, prohibiting all immigration of Chinese laborers for 10 years. The law excluded merchants, teachers, students, travelers, and diplo ...
, Kung and his companion were locked up for several weeks before the Chinese Consul-General posted bond, and they were then not allowed to go to Oberlin for another year. Their railway passage took them into Canada, but only by strong intervention from an Ohio congressman were they were allowed to re-enter the United States. Kung graduated from Oberlin in 1906, then proceeded to take a master's degree in economics from
Yale University
Yale University is a Private university, private research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Established in 1701 as the Collegiate School, it is the List of Colonial Colleges, third-oldest institution of higher education in the United Sta ...
.
After completing his education abroad, Kung returned to his home province in China. During the 1911
Xinhai Revolution
The 1911 Revolution, also known as the Xinhai Revolution or Hsinhai Revolution, ended China's last imperial dynasty, the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, and led to the establishment of the Republic of China. The revolution was the culmination of a ...
, Kung mobilized forces in support of
Yan Xishan
Yan Xishan (; 8 October 1883 – 22 July 1960, ) was a Chinese warlord who served in the government of the Republic of China. He effectively controlled the province of Shanxi from the 1911 Xinhai Revolution to the 1949 Communist victory in ...
, helping Yan to overthrow the authority of the Qing imperial government in Shanxi. After 1911, Kung became one of Yan's most trusted advisors, and Yan was soon recognized as the military governor of Shanxi by
Yuan Shikai
Yuan Shikai (; 16 September 1859 – 6 June 1916) was a Chinese military and government official who rose to power during the late Qing dynasty and eventually ended the Qing dynasty rule of China in 1912, later becoming the Emperor of China. H ...
, and effectively controlled Shanxi until 1949, when the
Communists
Communism (from Latin la, communis, lit=common, universal, label=none) is a far-left sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology and current within the socialist movement whose goal is the establishment of a communist society, a s ...
took control of mainland China. Kung's influence on Yan's thinking from 1911 onward was significant, and was a major factor in Yan's subsequent determination to modernize Shanxi. The reforms that Yan subsequently conducted won Yan widespread acclaim, and Shanxi gained a reputation during the
Warlord Era as being the "Model Province".
After 1911, Kung helped to establish Ming Hsien, a complex of Christian schools in Taigu on the land Kung had acquired through the Boxer Indemnity. Kung became principal, and married Han Yu-mei, a fellow graduate of the North China Union College, who died of tuberculosis. In 1913, he met
Soong Ai-ling
Soong Ai-ling (), legally Soong E-ling or Eling Soong (July 15, 1889 – October 18, 1973) was a Chinese businesswoman, the eldest of the Soong sisters and the wife of H. H. Kung (Kung Hsiang-Hsi), who was the richest man in the early 20th cent ...
, one of the
Soong sisters
The Soong sisters () were Soong Ai-ling, Soong Ching-ling, and Soong Mei-ling, three Shanghainese (of Hakka descent) Christian Chinese women who were, along with their husbands, amongst China's most significant political figures of the early ...
, and married her the following year. Supporters in Oberlin established the
Oberlin Shansi Memorial Association Oberlin Shansi Memorial Association, situated on the campus of Oberlin College in Oberlin, Ohio, is an independent non-profit organization whose goal is "to promote understanding and communication between Asians and Americans. This is accomplished ...
, to which Kung made regular and substantial contributions.
["H.H. Kung," Howard Boorman, ed. ''Biographical Dictionary of Republican China'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968) Vol II pp. 264-65.]
In 1922, Shanxi experienced a serious famine. Kung worked closely with the
American Red Cross and missionary organizations like
American Mission Board
The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) was among the first American Christian missionary organizations. It was created in 1810 by recent graduates of Williams College. In the 19th century it was the largest and most imp ...
and the
China International Famine Relief Commission
The China International Famine Relief Commission (CIFRC) was an organization dedicated to famine relief efforts in early 20th century China. The organization was founded on November 16, 1921.
See also
* Robert Jacquinot de Besange
* John Alexand ...
to deliver relief supplies and to improve Shanxi's infrastructure to make the delivery of relief easier. According to foreign members of the Famine Relief Commission, the collective efforts of all involved were successful in preventing what otherwise would have been an "appalling calamity", and by 1923 conditions in Shanxi returned to normal.
Minister in the Nationalist government
Kung was an early supporter of
Sun Yat-sen and the
Kuomintang (KMT or Nationalist Party), including early leaders such as
Wang Jingwei
Wang Jingwei (4 May 1883 – 10 November 1944), born as Wang Zhaoming and widely known by his pen name Jingwei, was a Chinese politician. He was initially a member of the left wing of the Kuomintang, leading a government in Wuhan in oppositi ...
. He developed close family ties. His wife was a sister of
Soong Tse-ven.
Soong Ching-ling
Rosamond Soong Ch'ing-ling (27 January 189329 May 1981) was a Chinese political figure. As the third wife of Sun Yat-sen, then Premier of the Kuomintang and President of the Republic of China, she was often referred to as Madame Sun Yat-sen. ...
, another sister, married Sun Yat-sen in 1915 and
Chiang Kai-shek became Kung's brother-in-law in 1927 when he married
Soong Mei-ling
Soong Mei-ling (also spelled Soong May-ling, ; March 5, 1898 – October 23, 2003), also known as Madame Chiang Kai-shek or Madame Chiang, was a Chinese political figure who was First Lady of the Republic of China, the wife of Generalissimo a ...
.
The
Soong sisters
The Soong sisters () were Soong Ai-ling, Soong Ching-ling, and Soong Mei-ling, three Shanghainese (of Hakka descent) Christian Chinese women who were, along with their husbands, amongst China's most significant political figures of the early ...
and their husbands had the reputation of being one of the
Four Big Families of the time.
Kung began his career in the Nationalist government of the
Republic of China as Minister of Industry, holding this position from 1927-1928 in the Wuhan Nationalist Government, led by Wang Jingwei during the
Northern Expedition
The Northern Expedition was a military campaign launched by the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) of the Kuomintang (KMT), also known as the "Chinese Nationalist Party", against the Beiyang government and other regional warlords in 1926. The ...
as a leftist rival to Chiang's faction. After the fall of Wang's government, Kung served as the Minister of Industry and Commerce from 1928-1931 in the Nanking Government, and later as the
Minister of Finance
A finance minister is an executive or cabinet position in charge of one or more of government finances, economic policy and financial regulation.
A finance minister's portfolio has a large variety of names around the world, such as "treasury", " ...
, from 1933–1944. Kung was governor of the
Central Bank of China
Central is an adjective usually referring to being in the center of some place or (mathematical) object.
Central may also refer to:
Directions and generalised locations
* Central Africa, a region in the centre of Africa continent, also known a ...
from 1933 to 1945, and also chairman of the
China Development Finance Corporation
The China Development Finance Corporation (CDFC, zh, 中國建設銀公司) was an investment company formed in 1934 to facilitate investment in the Republic of China, specifically into infrastructure development and in particular railways. It ...
from its creation in 1934.
In 1927 one of his first acts in government was to balance the national budget. To raise the capital required, Kung increased the taxes on cigarettes by 50%. Several Shanghai cigarette factories protested against these taxes with shutdowns. Kung also threatened to increase the salt tax by 28%.
Kung joined the central executive committee of the KMT in 1931. He served as
Premier of the Republic of China
The Premier of the Republic of China, officially the President of the Executive Yuan ( Chinese: 行政院院長), is the head of the government of the Republic of China of Taiwan and leader of the Executive Yuan. The premier is nominally the ...
from 1 January 1938 – 20 November 1939. Kung then served as the Vice-Premier of the Executive Yuan, from 1935-1945. Kung served as China's Chief Delegate to the International Monetary & Financial Conference in 1944, where he signed the Bretton Woods Accord during the
Bretton Woods Conference
The Bretton Woods Conference, formally known as the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, was the gathering of 730 delegates from all 44 Allied nations at the Mount Washington Hotel, situated in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, Unite ...
at the Mount Washington Hotel, in New Hampshire, United States. This conference established the
International Monetary Fund
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a major financial agency of the United Nations, and an international financial institution, headquartered in Washington, D.C., consisting of 190 countries. Its stated mission is "working to foster glo ...
(IMF) and the
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which today is part of the
World Bank
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans and grants to the governments of low- and middle-income countries for the purpose of pursuing capital projects. The World Bank is the collective name for the Inte ...
Group.
After his move to the central government, Kung continued to advocate for good relations between Chiang Kai-shek and Yan Xishan. Yan's opposition to Chiang during the 1930
Central Plains War
The Central Plains War () was a series of military campaigns in 1929 and 1930 that constituted a Chinese civil war between the Nationalist Kuomintang government in Nanjing led by Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and several regional military command ...
caused Yan to formally retire from all positions of leadership in Shanxi, and to flee to
Dalian. Kung's tireless advocacy for Yan within the central government was successful, as Chiang allowed Yan to return to Shanxi in 1931. Chiang clearly recognized Yan as the ''de facto'' ruler of Shanxi by 1934.
In 1934, Kung stated, in response to the American "nationalization of silver", that "We also would like to nationalize silver but for China this is impossible because our Government is hampered by extraterritorial treaties. We do not want the price to skyrocket, for silver is vital to our national life."
Diplomacy with Axis powers
![Kung and hitler](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Kung_and_hitler.jpg)
In 1937, as the Minister of Finance of the Republic of China, Kung and two other KMT officials visited Germany and were received by
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler (; 20 April 188930 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was dictator of Nazi Germany, Germany from 1933 until Death of Adolf Hitler, his death in 1945. Adolf Hitler's rise to power, He rose to power as the le ...
on 13 June. Hitler told Kung, "I understand that people in China think the
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, ...
is their friend. But from our talk I understand that you, Herr Doktor, realize the danger of Communist doctrines." Kung also convinced Hitler to cancel a scheduled speech at a Nazi conference by
Prince Chichibu
, was the second son of Emperor Taishō (Yoshihito) and Empress Teimei (Sadako), a younger brother of Emperor Shōwa (Hirohito) and a general in the Imperial Japanese Army. As a member of the Imperial House of Japan, he was the patron of severa ...
, the
Japanese Emperor
The Emperor of Japan is the monarch and the head of the Imperial Family of Japan. Under the Constitution of Japan, he is defined as the symbol of the Japanese state and the unity of the Japanese people, and his position is derived from "the w ...
's brother. Kung said, "I was able to make Hitler understand that Japan wanted to dominate the world... I was able to make Hitler think twice before getting too close to Japan." While he was in Germany, Kung stated his "deep satisfaction" with Hitler.
Hitler,
Hermann Göring
Hermann Wilhelm Göring (or Goering; ; 12 January 1893 – 15 October 1946) was a German politician, military leader and convicted war criminal. He was one of the most powerful figures in the Nazi Party, which ruled Germany from 1933 to 1 ...
and
Hjalmar Schacht
Hjalmar Schacht (born Horace Greeley Hjalmar Schacht; 22 January 1877 – 3 June 1970, ) was a German economist, banker, centre-right politician, and co-founder in 1918 of the German Democratic Party. He served as the Currency Commissioner ...
bestowed upon Kung an honorary degree, and attempted to open China's market to German exports. Hitler, Göring, and Schacht earmarked for Chinese students for studying in Germany after they persuaded an industrialist to set aside the money for that purpose. Kung, in favor of commercial credits, refused an international loan offer by Hitler.
Kung also met Hjalmar Schacht while in Germany. Schacht told him that "German-Chinese friendship stemmed in good part from the hard struggle of both for independence." Kung said, "China considers Germany its best friend... I hope and wish that Germany will participate in supporting the further development of China, the opening up of its sources of raw materials, the upbringing of its industries and
tsmeans of transportation."
Kung also visited U.S. President
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (; ; January 30, 1882April 12, 1945), often referred to by his initials FDR, was an American politician and attorney who served as the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. As the ...
and Italian leader
Benito Mussolini in 1937. Kung said, "I thought Mussolini was doing great things for Italy... We got along well. I thought he would be a good ally of our Government."
During the Second Sino-Japanese War
By the time of the
Second Sino Japanese War
The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) or War of Resistance (Chinese term) was a military conflict that was primarily waged between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. The war made up the Chinese theater of the wider Pacific The ...
(1937–45), Kung had achieved a reputation as an exceptionally powerful and manipulative figure within the
Nationalist government, sometimes in alliance with his brother-in-law,
Soong Tse-ven and his sister-in-law,
Soong Mei-ling
Soong Mei-ling (also spelled Soong May-ling, ; March 5, 1898 – October 23, 2003), also known as Madame Chiang Kai-shek or Madame Chiang, was a Chinese political figure who was First Lady of the Republic of China, the wife of Generalissimo a ...
, and sometimes in rivalry with them.
By the time the Nationalist government had moved to
Chongqing, Kung was running his own secret service.
Zhou Enlai
Zhou Enlai (; 5 March 1898 – 8 January 1976) was a Chinese statesman and military officer who served as the first premier of the People's Republic of China from 1 October 1949 until his death on 8 January 1976. Zhou served under Chairman Ma ...
, while serving as the
Communist Party
A communist party is a political party that seeks to realize the socio-economic goals of communism. The term ''communist party'' was popularized by the title of ''The Manifesto of the Communist Party'' (1848) by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. ...
's ambassador to the KMT in Chongqing, was notably successful in gaining the confidence of Kung's advisor, Hu Egong, allowing Zhou to conduct his intelligence work more efficiently.
In January 1938, Kung, a 75th-generation descendant of
Confucius
Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...
, greeted his relative,
Kung Te-cheng
Kung Te-cheng () (23 February 1920 – 28 October 2008) was a 77th generation descendant of Confucius in the main line of descent. He was the final person to be appointed Duke Yansheng and the first Sacrificial Official to Confucius. He helped ...
, who was also a descendant of Confucius, after Kung Te-cheng had fled to
Hankou
Hankou, alternately romanized as Hankow (), was one of the three towns (the other two were Wuchang and Hanyang) merged to become modern-day Wuhan city, the capital of the Hubei province, China. It stands north of the Han and Yangtze Rivers whe ...
after the Japanese invasion of
Shandong. After Kung Te-cheng fled, the Japanese blew up his residence on
Mount Tai
Mount Tai () is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai'an. It is the highest point in Shandong province, China. The tallest peak is the '' Jade Emperor Peak'' (), which is commonly reported as being ...
. ''
Time
Time is the continued sequence of existence and events that occurs in an apparently irreversible succession from the past, through the present, into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequence events, ...
'' magazine addressed Kung Te-cheng by the title "
Duke Kung", and referred to his residence as the "ducal seat".
After a string of Japanese mishaps in 1938, Kung gave a radio address in which he stated that "God is helping China!" Kung's radio speech came after reports that a Japanese attempt to seize Hankou had failed; and, with constant Chinese guerrilla activity, Chinese forces had seized territory captured by Japan.
In 1944, Kung gave a speech at China House in New York with one of
Mencius's direct descendants,
Meng Chih. Both were alumni of American universities.
After the KMT retreated to
Taiwan
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
in 1949 at the end of the
Chinese Civil War
The Chinese Civil War was fought between the Kuomintang-led government of the Republic of China and forces of the Chinese Communist Party, continuing intermittently since 1 August 1927 until 7 December 1949 with a Communist victory on m ...
, Kung moved to the United States. He died in 1967 in
Locust Valley
Locust Valley is a hamlet and census-designated place (CDP) located in the Town of Oyster Bay in Nassau County, on the North Shore of Long Island, in New York, United States. The population was 3,406 at the 2010 census.
History
The rollin ...
,
New York.
Personal life
Kung had a habit of smoking
stogie
The cheroot is a filterless cylindrical cigar with both ends clipped during manufacture. Since cheroots do not taper, they are inexpensive to roll mechanically, and their low cost makes them popular.
The word 'cheroot' probably comes via Portug ...
s. ''
Time
Time is the continued sequence of existence and events that occurs in an apparently irreversible succession from the past, through the present, into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequence events, ...
'' magazine claimed that Kung smoked "15
Havana cigar
Habanos S.A. is a Cuban manufacturing company of tobacco that controls the promotion, distribution, and export of premium cigars and other tobacco products for Cuba worldwide. It was established in 1994.
Ownership of Habanos S.A. is split equa ...
s" a day. He was a Christian.
Kung was a 75th generation descendant of
Confucius
Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...
, as indicated by the
generation name
Generation name (variously zibei or banci in Chinese; tự bối, ban thứ or tên thế hệ in Vietnamese; hangnyeolja in Korea) is one of the characters in a traditional Chinese, Vietnamese and Korean given name, and is so called because ea ...
''hsiang'' (祥; ''xiáng''). Kung's father was (; 1861–1911), a 74th generation descendant of Confucius, indicated by the generation name ''fan'' (繁; ''fán'').
Kung first marriage was to Han Yu-mei in 1910, but she died in 1913. In 1914, Kung married his second wife,
Soong Ai-ling
Soong Ai-ling (), legally Soong E-ling or Eling Soong (July 15, 1889 – October 18, 1973) was a Chinese businesswoman, the eldest of the Soong sisters and the wife of H. H. Kung (Kung Hsiang-Hsi), who was the richest man in the early 20th cent ...
, the eldest of the
Soong sisters
The Soong sisters () were Soong Ai-ling, Soong Ching-ling, and Soong Mei-ling, three Shanghainese (of Hakka descent) Christian Chinese women who were, along with their husbands, amongst China's most significant political figures of the early ...
. Kung and Soong had two sons and two daughters:
*
Kung Ling-i (
孔令儀; Kong Lingyi), daughter
*
David Kung Ling-kan (
孔令侃; Kong Lingkan), son
* Kung Ling-chun (
孔令俊; Kong Lingjun),
daughter, also known as Kung Ling-wei (孔令偉)
* Kung Ling-chie (
孔令傑; Kong Lingjie), son. His son Gregory Kung (Kung Teh-chi) (Kong Deji) (孔德基) was born from his marriage to
Debra Paget.
[ ]
The children all have the generation name ''ling'' (令; ''lìng'') in their names to indicate that they are 76th generation descendants of Confucius.
The Kung family residential compound, a well-preserved example of mid-
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-spea ...
architecture, is now a tourist attraction in
Taigu County
Taigu () is a district of Shanxi province, China under the administration of Jinzhong City. It is administratively into three town-level entities (Mingxing 明星镇, Hucun 胡村镇, and Fancun 范村镇), and six township-level entities ( Ho ...
,
Shanxi.
See also
*
Soong sisters
The Soong sisters () were Soong Ai-ling, Soong Ching-ling, and Soong Mei-ling, three Shanghainese (of Hakka descent) Christian Chinese women who were, along with their husbands, amongst China's most significant political figures of the early ...
*
Chiang Kai-shek
*
History of the Republic of China
The history of the Republic of China begins after the Qing dynasty in 1912, when the Xinhai Revolution and the formation of the Republic of China put an end to 2,000 years of imperial rule. The Republic experienced many trials and tribulations a ...
*
Military of the Republic of China
Footnotes
References
* Barnouin, Barbara and Yu Changgen
''Zhou Enlai: A Political Life'' Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2006. . Retrieved 12 March 2011.
*
* Gillin, Donald G. ''Warlord: Yen Hsi-shan in Shansi Province 1911-1949''. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 1967.
*
*
*
Further reading
* Seagrave, Sterling. ''The Soong Dynasty''. Corgi Books, 1996. .
External links
*
*
Finding aid to the H.H. Kung papers at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kung, H. H.
1881 births
1967 deaths
Descendants of Confucius
Chinese Christians
Chinese bankers
Chinese people of World War II
Oberlin College alumni
Republic of China politicians from Shanxi
Premiers of the Republic of China
Yale Law School alumni
Politicians from Jinzhong
Businesspeople from Shanxi
Chinese anti-communists
Chinese Civil War refugees
People from Locust Valley, New York
International Olympic Committee members
Taiwanese people from Shanxi
Governors of the Central Bank of the Republic of China
Bretton Woods Conference delegates