Phonology
The phonemic inventory of Kokota consists of 22 consonants and 5 vowels.Vowels
Kokota has five vowel phonemes as shown in theConsonants
Kokota orthography is heavily influenced by that of Cheke Holo. For instance, glottal stops are not phonemic in Kokota but are often written with an apostrophe (as in Cheke Holo) when they occur in certain nondistinctive environments, such as to mark morpheme boundaries between neighboring vowels. Similarly, Cheke Holo distinguishes ''j'' and ''z'' but Kokota does not. Nevertheless, Kokota speakers tend to use either letter to write phonemic /z/. The macron is used to write theSyllable structure
Kokota uses three types of syllable structure for the most part: V, CV, and CCV. Most (88% of 746 syllables examined) are CV (V and CCV each represent 6%). However, there are also rare cases where a CCVV or CVV syllable may occur. Thus, Kokota structure is: (C)(C)V(V). Final consonant codas usually occur only in words borrowed from another language. The CCVV structure is extremely rare as Kokota does not use phonemic 'diphthongs' and the term simply refers to 2 vowels occurring in sequence in a single syllable. In CC initial syllables, the first consonant (C1) must be an obstruent or fricative, specifically: the labial plosives /p/, /b/, velar plosives /k/, /g/, labial fricatives /f/, /v/, or coronal fricatives /s/, /z/. The second consonant (C2) must be a voiced coronal sonorant ( /ɾ/, /l/, or /n/). The table below illustrates the possible CC onset cluster pairings. The table below contains representations of the basic, productive syllable structures in Kokota.Stress
Kokota uses trochaic stress patterns (stressed-unstressed in sequence, counting from the left edge of a word). Stress in the language varies widely among speakers, but there are patterns to the variation. Three main factors contribute to this variability: the limited morphology of Kokota, the fact some words are irregular by nature, and finally because of the present transition in stress assignment. The language is currently in a period of transition as it moves from relying on stress assignment based on moras and moves to stress assignment by syllable. The age of the speaker is a defining factor in stress use as members of older generations assign stress based on weight while younger generations assign stress based on syllables, placing main stress on the leftmost syllable of the word.Example 1
Words can be divided into syllables (σ) and feet (φ) and syllables may be divided further into moras (μ). Two moras grouped together comprise a foot. An important restriction on foot formation in Kokota is that their construction cannot split moras of the same syllable. For example, a word that has three syllables ''CV.CV.CVV'' has four moras CV, CV, CV, V. These moras are split into two feet: ''CV.CVand ''CVV Assigning ''stress'' based on mora uses bimoraic feet to determine where a word receives stress. In CVV.CV words like /bae.su/ ('shark') the syllables are split as ''bae'' and ''su''. The word subdivides into three moras: ''ba, e, su''. The first two moras ''ba'' and ''e'' become Foot 1 and ''su'' is a 'left-over' mora. The first mora is stressed (''ba''), though in speech the whole syllable receives stress so ''bae'' is stressed in this word (see below where the stressed syllable is bolded). ''baesu'' φ: ''bae'', - σ: ''bae'', ''su'' μ: ''ba'', ''e'', ''su'' In contrast, a younger speaker of Kokota would assign stress based on bisyllabic feet. Following the syllable structure above, ''bae'' is again the stressed syllable but this is simply coincidental as stress is assigned to the first syllable (of the two: ''bae.su''). This coincidence will not always be the case as demonstrated in the next example, below.Example 2
CV.CVV words like ''/ka.lae/'' ('reef') show more complex stress assignment. 'ka.lae' has three moras: ''ka, la, e'' and two syllables: ''ka, lae''. For older speakers, the feet are assigned differently than in ''bae.su'' because ordinary foot assignment would take the first two moras and thus would split the ''lae'' syllable. Since this is impossible, foot assignment begins with the second mora and thus the first foot is ''lae'' and stress falls on the first mora of that foot (and the rest of the syllable). ''kalae'' φ: - , ''la'' ''e'' σ: ''ka'', ''la'' ''e'' μ: ''ka'', ''la'', ''e'' A younger speaker uses the simpler, syllable-based foot parsing: stress thus falls on the first syllable ''ka'' while the second syllable ''lae'' is unstressed.Verb Complex
In the Kokota language there are two layers to the verb complex: an inner layer and an outer layer. The inner layer is the verb core which is transparent to any sentence modifiers. The outer layer can alter the verb core all together. Constituent modifiers can modify the verb complex in a sentence in addition to the inner and outer layers of verb complexes.Verb Compounding
Compound verbs stem from multiple verbs. The left-hand root is the verb and the right-hand can be a noun, verb, or adjective. The phrase all together acts as a verb phrase. Table retrieved from, Kokota Grammar by Bill Palmer, Honolulu, US: University of Hawaii Press, 2008.Reduplication
Kokota shows full and partial reduplication of disyllabic roots.Partial Reduplication
In some cases partial reduplication shows the change of a noun to a verb; nouns from verbs; slight noun from noun differentiation; slight verb from verb differentiation; derived form of a habitual, ongoing, or diminutive event. Tables retrieved from, Kokota Grammar by Bill Palmer, Honolulu, US: University of Hawaii Press, 2008.Full Reduplication
There is only a small number of full reduplication of disyllabic roots in the Kokota language. Below are examples of full reduplication where the relationship is idiosyncratic: Tables retrieved from, Kokota Grammar by Bill Palmer, Honolulu, US: University of Hawaii Press, 2008. One example shows full reduplication deriving verbs from transitive roots, and nouns from verbs: Tables retrieved from, Kokota Grammar by Bill Palmer, Honolulu, US: University of Hawaii Press, 2008.Clause Structure (Syntax)
Syntax in Kokota follows the basic sequential order: Subject -> Verb -> Object. An example is shown below. Subject: ia koilo n-e Verb: zogu Object: ka kokorakoEquative Clauses
Equative clauses represent a characteristic of the subject in the sentence. In the Kokota language moods are unmarked. In equatives, the subject agreement component in verb clauses are excluded.Telling the Time
When telling the time; time is the subject. Telling time smaller than an hour is expressed by a NP that expresses the minutes numerically attached to a possessor that expresses the hour. Using the terms like ‘half past’ or ‘quarter to’ cannot be determined in Kokota language. Table retrieved from, Kokota Grammar by Bill Palmer, Honolulu, US: University of Hawaii Press, 2008.Topicalization
The topicalized subject in Kokota language is in the preverbal position. Any subject can be topicalized but rarely in natural conversation. Table retrieved from, Kokota Grammar by Bill Palmer, Honolulu, US: University of Hawaii Press, 2008. Below is a table of the breakdown position occurrence of the first 100 verbal clauses in a normal text: Table retrieved from, Kokota Grammar by Bill Palmer, Honolulu, US: University of Hawaii Press, 2008.Morphology
Nouns
Cliticization
By adding two clitics on to the root noun /''dadara''/, Kokota specifies who possesses it as well as its proximity, as shown in the gloss below. The gloss of /''dadaraḡuine''/ is: /''dadara''/ is the root meaning 'blood'; /''gu''/ indicates 1st person singular possessive ("my"). A more complex form of cliticization occurs in the example sentence below: (Notes: the standing stones 'titili' have spiritual significance; NT is the indicator of neutral modality; CNT is continuous; NV refers to something that is not visible)Partial Reduplication
Partial reduplication in Kokota generally derives nouns from verbs. Below are two examples:Compounding (nouns)
Both endocentric and exocentric compounding occur.Endocentric Compounding
Endocentric compounding in Kokota results in words that serve the grammatical purpose that one of its constituent words does. There are three examples below.Exocentric Compounding
Exocentric compounding in Kokota results in words that do not serve the grammatical purpose that any of the constituent words do. There are two examples below.Pronouns
There exist four sets of pronominal forms: preverbal subject indexed auxiliaries, post verbal object indexing, possessor indexing and independent pronouns . Complying with typical Oceanic features, Kokota distinguishes between four person categories: first person inclusive, first person exclusive, second person, and third person. The preverbal subject indexing auxiliaries do not differentiate between singular and plural, whereas possessor and postverbal object indexing do – except in first person inclusive, where no singular is possible .Non-Independent: Subject pronouns
The preverbal subject-indexing pronouns do not distinguish number .Non-Independent: Object pronouns
The object-indexing pronouns are postverbal clitics .Non-Independent: Possessor pronouns
The possessor-indexing pronouns are suffixed to nouns .Independent: Focal pronouns
The independent pronouns, however, go one step further and differentiate between singular, dual, trial and plural numbers .Possessive Constructions
Similarly to many Oceanic languages, Kokota makes the distinction between alienable possession and inalienable possession.Inalienable
Inalienable possession consists of possessor indexing enclitics attaching to the nominal core of the possessed noun phrase as follows :Alienable
Alienable possession is formed with a possessive base that is indexed to the possessor. This entire unit precedes the possessed noun phrase. Alienable possession is further broken down into two categories, consumable, whose base is ''ge-'', and non-consumable, whose base is ''no-'' .Negation
In Kokota negative construction is expressed in two ways.Palmer, B. (1999). ''Kokota Grammar, Santa Isabel, Solomon Islands.'' PhD dissertation, University of Sydney, Australia. p. 246Negative particle ''ti''
Negation is constructed when an auxiliary verb is suffixed with the negative participle ''ti''.Palmer, B. (1999). ''Kokota Grammar, Santa Isabel, Solomon Islands.'' PhD dissertation, University of Sydney, Australia. p. 247.= Negation in 'be thus' clause
= When the negative particle ''ti'' is situated in a ‘be thus’ clause the particle ''ti'' suffixes itself onto the auxiliary in the verb complex of the ‘be thus’ clause. The verb complex within the ‘be thus’ clause consist of the single worded verb ''-u'' ‘be thus’, the auxiliary, tense and aspect particles. Below is an example that shows how it is done. This example shows how the negative particle ''ti'' is suffixed onto the irrealis auxiliary ''o'' and also attached to the ‘be thus’ verb ''-u'' to negate the verb complex.= Negation in nominalised clause
= When the negative particle ''ti'' expresses negation is it usually suffixed onto the auxiliary verb in the nominalised clause. Below is an example of ''ti'' in a nominalised clause. In this example, the particle ''ti'' is not suffixed onto an auxiliary. This is because the auxiliary is an irrealis as this is discussing the past. Irrealis auxiliaries are omittable parts of Kokota speech when there is no ambiguity. As this example is not ambiguous, the irrealis auxiliary is omitted.= Negation in equative predicate
= The formation of a negative equatives predicates is similar to the ‘be thus’ clause and nominalised clause where the negative particle is suffixed onto the auxiliary of the verb complex. This is demonstrated below.= Negation in imperative clause
= Negation in imperative clauses can be expressed by the negative particle ''ti'' or the subordinating construction. However, it is more common to use the negative particle ''ti'' to construct negation in an imperative clause as is the most frequently used and preferred strategy.Palmer, B. (1999). ''Kokota Grammar, Santa Isabel, Solomon Islands.'' PhD dissertation, University of Sydney, Australia. p. 248Subordinating construction
Negation is expressed through the subordinating construction involves the negative existential verb ''teo.'' This subordinating construction is commonly used to negate declarative clauses.= Negative existential verb ''teo''
= The negative existential verb ''teo'' expresses ‘not exist’/ ‘be.not’ and it is the antonym of the positive existential verb ''au'', meaning ‘exist’.Palmer, B. (1999). ''Kokota Grammar, Santa Isabel, Solomon Islands.'' PhD dissertation, University of Sydney, Australia. p. 179= Negation in declarative clause
= Negation is expressed in a declarative clause through subordinating construction. Through this process the declarative clause becomes a subordinated positive declarative clause which complements the negative existential verb ''teo.'' Below is an example of a negatived declarative clause. In this example the subordinated positive declarative clause has been bracketed to show its placement in the main clause in relation to the negative existential verb ''teo.''Phrases
Below are phrases spoken in Kokota by a native speaker named Nathaniel Boiliana as he reminisced about World War II:Numerals
The numeral system of Kokota has many typologically odd features and shows significant lexical replacement. In the numbers up to 10, only "7" ''fitu'' (< *pitu) is a clear Proto-Oceanic reflex. The higher numerals also alternate between multiples of 10 (e.g. ''tulufulu'' "30" from POc *tolu-puluq "3 x 10") and 20 (''tilotutu'' "60" or "3 x ''tutu''"), including two distinct morphemes with the meanings "10" (''-fulu'' from Proto-Oceanic and ''-salai'', used only on numbers above 60 and likely from a substrate) and "20" (''varedake'' "20" and ''-tutu'', also likely from a substrate'')''. Ross describes it as one of the most bizarre numeral systems attested for an Oceanic language. AbbreviationsPalmer, B. (1999). ''Kokota Grammar, Santa Isabel, Solomon Islands.'' PhD dissertation, University of Sydney, Australia. p. xx
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Notes
References
* *Palmer, B. (1999). ''Kokota Grammar, Santa Isabel, Solomon Islands.'' (PhD dissertation, University of Sydney, Australia). Retrieved from