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The ''guqin'' (; ) is a plucked seven-string Chinese musical instrument. It has been played since ancient times, and has traditionally been favoured by
scholars A scholar is a person who pursues academic and intellectual activities, particularly academics who apply their intellectualism into expertise in an area of study. A scholar can also be an academic, who works as a professor, teacher, or researcher ...
and
literati Literati may refer to: *Intellectuals or those who love, read, and comment on literature *The scholar-official or ''literati'' of imperial/medieval China **Literati painting, also known as the southern school of painting, developed by Chinese liter ...
as an instrument of great subtlety and refinement, as highlighted by the quote "a gentleman does not part with his ''qin'' or '' se'' without good reason," as well as being associated with the ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius. It is sometimes referred to by the Chinese as "the father of Chinese music" or "the instrument of the sages". The ''guqin'' is not to be confused with the ''
guzheng The zheng () or gu zheng (), is a Chinese plucked zither. The modern guzheng commonly has 21, 25, or 26 strings, is long, and is tuned in a major pentatonic scale. It has a large, resonant soundboard made from ''Paulownia'' wood. Other co ...
'', another Chinese long stringed instrument also without frets, but with moveable bridges under each string. Traditionally, the instrument was simply referred to as the "''qin''" (琴) but by the twentieth century the term had come to be applied to many other musical instruments as well: the '' yangqin'' hammered dulcimer, the '' huqin'' family of bowed string instruments, and the Western piano (''gangqin'' (钢琴)) and violin (''xiaotiqin'' (小提琴)) are examples of this usage. The prefix "''gu-''" (古; meaning "ancient") was later added for clarification. Thus, the instrument is called "''guqin''" today. It can also be called ''qixian-qin'' (七絃琴; lit. "seven-stringed qin"). Because
Robert Hans van Gulik Robert Hans van Gulik (, 9 August 1910 – 24 September 1967) was a Dutch orientalist, diplomat, musician (of the guqin), and writer, best known for the Judge Dee historical mysteries, the protagonist of which he borrowed from the 18th-centur ...
's book about the qin is called ''The Lore of the Chinese Lute'', the guqin is sometimes inaccurately called a
lute A lute ( or ) is any plucked string instrument with a neck and a deep round back enclosing a hollow cavity, usually with a sound hole or opening in the body. It may be either fretted or unfretted. More specifically, the term "lute" can ref ...
. Other incorrect classifications, mainly from music compact discs, include "
harp The harp is a stringed musical instrument that has a number of individual strings running at an angle to its soundboard; the strings are plucked with the fingers. Harps can be made and played in various ways, standing or sitting, and in orche ...
" or "table-harp". The guqin is a very quiet instrument, with a range of about four
octaves In music, an octave ( la, octavus: eighth) or perfect octave (sometimes called the diapason) is the interval between one musical pitch and another with double its frequency. The octave relationship is a natural phenomenon that has been refer ...
, and its open strings are tuned in the bass register. Its lowest pitch is about two octaves below
middle C C or Do is the first note and semitone of the C major scale, the third note of the A minor scale (the relative minor of C major), and the fourth note (G, A, B, C) of the Guidonian hand, commonly pitched around 261.63  Hz. The actual frequen ...
, or the lowest note on the cello. Sounds are produced by plucking open strings, stopped strings, and harmonics. The use of
glissando In music, a glissando (; plural: ''glissandi'', abbreviated ''gliss.'') is a glide from one pitch to another (). It is an Italianized musical term derived from the French ''glisser'', "to glide". In some contexts, it is distinguished from the co ...
—sliding tones—gives it a sound reminiscent of a pizzicato cello, fretless double bass or a
slide guitar Slide guitar is a technique for playing the guitar that is often used in blues music. It involves playing a guitar while holding a hard object (a slide) against the strings, creating the opportunity for glissando effects and deep vibratos tha ...
. The qin has 13 "hui", which represent the different position in one string. Pressing different "hui" produces different sound keys. The qin is also capable of many harmonics, of which 91 are most commonly used and indicated by the dotted positions. By tradition, the qin originally had five strings, which represent gong, shang, jue, zhi, yu in the ancient Chinese music system, but ancient qin-like instruments with only one string or more strings have been found. The modern form has been stabilized to seven strings. There are more than 3,360 known surviving pieces of guqin music from ancient and imperial periods. On 7 November 2003, UNESCO announced that the Chinese guqin was selected as an Intangible World Cultural Heritage. In 2006, guqin was listed in the List of National Non-material Cultural Heritage in China. In 2010, a
Song period The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
guqin was sold for $22 million, making it the most expensive musical instrument ever sold.


History

Legend has it that the qin, the most revered of all Chinese musical instruments, has a history of about 5,000 years, and that the legendary figures of China's
pre-history Prehistory, also known as pre-literary history, is the period of human history between the use of the first stone tools by hominins 3.3 million years ago and the beginning of recorded history with the invention of writing systems. The use of ...
Fuxi, Shennong and Huang Di, the " Yellow Emperor" – were involved in its creation. Nearly all qin books and tablature collections published prior to the twentieth century state this as the actual origins of the qin, although this is now viewed as mythology. It is mentioned in Chinese writings dating back nearly 3,000 years, and examples have been found in tombs from about 2,500 years ago. The exact origins of the qin is still a very much continuing subject of debate over the past few decades. In 1977, a recording of "Flowing Water" (''Liu Shui'', as performed by Guan Pinghu, one of the best qin players of the 20th century) was chosen to be included in the Voyager Golden Record, a gold-plated LP recording containing music from around the world, which was sent into outer space by NASA on the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft. It is the second-longest excerpt included on the disc. The reason to select a work played on this specific instrument is because the tonal structure of the instrument, its musical scale, is derived from fundamental physical laws related to vibration and overtones, representing the intellectual capacity of human beings on this subject. In 2003, guqin music was proclaimed as one of the
Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity The Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity was made by the Director-General of UNESCO starting in 2001 to raise awareness of intangible cultural heritage and encourage local communities to protect them and t ...
by UNESCO.


Schools, societies and players

As with any other musical tradition, there are differences in ideals and interaction between different people. Therefore, there exist different schools and societies which transmit these different ideas and artistic traditions.


Historical schools

Many qin schools known as ''qin pai'' developed over the centuries. Such schools generally formed around areas where qin activity was greatest. Some schools have come and gone, and some have offshoots (such as the Mei'an school, a Zhucheng school offshoot). Often, the school is originated from a single person, such as the Wu school which is named after the late
Wu Zhaoji Wu Zhaoji (吳兆基, 1908-1997), also known as Xiangquan, was a Chinese musician. Born in Hunan, China in 1908, he moved to Suzhou at the age of four with his family, where he lived for the rest of his life until his death in 1997. Raised in a mus ...
. The style can vary considerably between schools; some are very similar, yet others are very distinct. The differences are often in the interpretation of the music. Northern schools tend to be more vigorous in technique than Southern schools. But in modern terms, the distinction between schools and styles is often blurred because a single player may learn from many different players from different schools and absorb each of their styles. This is especially so for conservatory trained players. People from the same school trained under the same master may have different individual styles (such as
Zhang Ziqian Zhang Ziqian (, 1899–1991), a famous seven-string zither qin player, was born in Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, China, during the late Qing Dynasty. He began studying the guqin with a guqin master Sun Shaotao at the age of thirteen. In the 19 ...
and Liu Shaochun of the Guangling school).


Guqin societies

There is a difference between qin schools and qin societies. The former concerns itself with transmission of a style, the latter concerns itself with performance. The qin society will encourage meetings with fellow qin players in order to play music and maybe discuss the nature of the qin. A gathering like this is called a ''yaji'' ( 雅集, literally "elegant gathering"), and takes place once every month or two. Sometimes, societies may go on excursions to places of natural beauty to play qin, or attend conferences. They may also participate in competitions or research. Of course, societies do not have to have a strict structure to adhere to; it could mostly be on a leisurely basis. The main purpose of qin societies is to promote and play qin music. It is often a good opportunity to network and learn to play the instrument, to ask questions and to receive answers.


Players

Many artists down through the ages have played the instrument, and the instrument was a favourite of scholars. Certain melodies are also associated with famous figures, such as Confucius and Qu Yuan. Some emperors of China also had a liking to the qin, including the Song dynasty emperor, Huizong, as clearly seen in his own painting of himself playing the qin in "Ting Qin Tu".


Historical

* Confucius: Philosopher, 551-479 BCE, associated with the piece ''Kongzi Duyi'', ''Weibian Sanjue'' and ''Youlan''. *
Bo Ya Bo Ya (Chinese language, Chinese: 伯牙; pinyin: ''Bó Yá'') was a Chinese ''Guqin, qin'' player from the state of Chu (state), Chu (楚), which is roughly equivalent to modern-day Jingzhou, Hubei, who lived during the Spring and Autumn period o ...
: Qin player of the
Spring and Autumn period The Spring and Autumn period was a period in Chinese history from approximately 770 to 476 BC (or according to some authorities until 403 BC) which corresponds roughly to the first half of the Eastern Zhou period. The period's name derives fr ...
, associated with the piece ''Gao Shan''. and ''Liu Shui''《流水》 * Zhuang Zi: Daoist philosopher of the Warring States period, associated with the piece ''Zhuang Zhou Mengdie'' and ''Shenhua Yin''. * Qu Yuan (340-278 BCE): Poet of the Warring States period, associated with the piece '' Li Sao''. * Cai Yong:
Han Han may refer to: Ethnic groups * Han Chinese, or Han People (): the name for the largest ethnic group in China, which also constitutes the world's largest ethnic group. ** Han Taiwanese (): the name for the ethnic group of the Taiwanese p ...
musician, author of ''Qin Cao''. * Cai Wenji: Cai Yong's daughter, associated with the piece ''Hujia Shiba-pai'', etc. * Sima Xiangru: Han poet, 179-117 BCE. * Zhuge Liang (181–234): Chinese military leader in the Three Kingdoms, one legend has him playing guqin calmly outside his fort while scaring off the enemy attackers. * Ji Kang: One of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, musician and poet, writer of ''Qin Fu''. * Li Bai: Tang poet, 701–762. *
Bai Juyi Bai Juyi (also Bo Juyi or Po Chü-i; ; 772–846), courtesy name Letian (樂天), was a renowned Chinese poet and Tang dynasty government official. Many of his poems concern his career or observations made about everyday life, including as g ...
: Tang poet, 772–846. *
Song Huizong Emperor Huizong of Song (7 June 1082 – 4 June 1135), personal name Zhao Ji, was the eighth emperor of the Northern Song dynasty of China. He was also a very well-known calligrapher. Born as the 11th son of Emperor Shenzong, he ascended the ...
: Song emperor famous for his patronage of the arts, had a ''Wanqin Tang'' ("10,000 Qin Hall") in his palace. *
Guo Chuwang Guo Chuwang () was a patriot at the end of the Song Dynasty and a musician of the guqin The ''guqin'' (; ) is a plucked seven-string Chinese musical instrument. It has been played since ancient times, and has traditionally been favoured by ...
: Patriot at the end of the Song dynasty, composer of the piece ''Xiaoxiang Shuiyun''. The classical collections such as ''Qin Shi'', ''Qinshi Bu'' and ''Qinshi Xu'' include biographies of hundreds more players.


Contemporary

Contemporary qin players extend from the early twentieth century to the present. More so than in the past, such players tend to have many different pursuits and occupations other than qin playing. There are only a few players who are paid to exclusively play and research the guqin professionally and nothing else. Qin players can also be well-versed in other cultural pursuits, such as the arts. Or they can do independent research on music subjects. Often, players may play other instruments (not necessary Chinese) and give recitals or talks.


Performance

During the performance of qin, musicians may use a variety of techniques to reach the full expressing potential of the instrument. There are many special tablatures that had developed over the centuries specifically dedicated to qin for their reference and a repertoire of popular and ancient tunes for their choice.


Playing technique

The tones of qin can be categorized as three characteristic "sounds". The first type is ''san yin'' ( 散音), which literally means "unfettered sound". It's the fundamental frequency produced by plucking a free string with the fingers of the right hand. The second type, made by plucking a string with the right hand and gently tapping specific note positions on the string with the left hand, will create a crisp sound named ''fan yin'' ( 泛音, lit. "floating sound") or overtone harmonics (the equivalent technique in Western music is the
string harmonic Playing a string harmonic (a flageolet) is a string instrument musical technique, technique that uses the node (physics), nodes of natural harmonics of a musical string (music), string to isolate Overtone, overtones. Playing string harmonics prod ...
or ''flageolet''). Important scale notes, called ''hui'' ( ), are marked by 13 glossy white dots made of mica or seashell inset in the front surface of the qin, occur at integer divisions of the string length. The "crystal concordant" (perfectly harmonic) overtones can only be evoked by tapping the strings precisely at these ''hui''. The third type is ''an yin'' ( 按音/ 案音, lit. "pressed sound"), which is sometimes also called ''shi yin'' ( 音, lit. "full sound") or ''zou yin'' ( 音, lit. "changing sound"). These comprise the major cadences of most qin pieces. To play ''an yin'', the musician stops a string at a specific pitch on the board surface with the left thumb, middle or ring finger, strikes the string with the right hand, then they may slide the left hand up and down to vary the note. This technique is similar to playing a
slide guitar Slide guitar is a technique for playing the guitar that is often used in blues music. It involves playing a guitar while holding a hard object (a slide) against the strings, creating the opportunity for glissando effects and deep vibratos tha ...
across the player's lap. However, the manipulation of qin is much more multifarious than that of a guitar, which has only around 3 or 4 main techniques. (). According to the book ''Cunjian Guqin Zhifa Puzi Jilan'', there are around 1,070 different finger techniques used for the qin. Thus the qin is possibly the instrument with the most playing techniques in both the Chinese and Western instrument families. Most of the qin's techniques are obsolete, but around 50 of them still appear in modern performance. Sometimes, guqin can be played with a violin bow. It has a tone similar to that of a cello, but raspier. Image:Qintech Tiao.PNG, 〈挑〉 Tiao Image:Qintech Gou.jpg, 〈勾〉 Gou Image:Qintech Pi.PNG, 〈劈〉 Pi Image:Qintech Bo.jpg, 〈撥〉 Bo The above four figures are from an old handbook.


Tablature and notation

Written qin music did not directly tell what notes were played; instead, it was written in a tablature detailing tuning, finger positions, and stroke technique, thus comprising a step by step method and description of how to play a piece. Some tablatures do indicate notes using the
gongche ''Gongche'' notation or ''gongchepu'' is a traditional musical notation method, once popular in ancient China. It uses Chinese characters to represent musical notes. It was named after two of the Chinese characters that were used to represent ...
system, or indicate rhythm using dots. The earliest example of the modern shorthand tablature survives from around the twelfth century CE. An earlier form of music notation from the Tang era survives in just one manuscript, dated to the seventh century CE, called '' Jieshi Diao Youlan'' (''Solitary Orchid in Stone Tablet Mode''). It is written in a longhand form called ''wenzi pu'' ( 譜) (literally "written notation"), said to have been created by Yong Menzhou during the Warring States period, which gives all the details using ordinary written Chinese characters. Later in the Tang dynasty, Cao Rou and others simplified the notation, using only the important elements of the characters (like string number, plucking technique, ''hui'' number and which finger to stop the string) and combined them into one character notation. This meant that instead of having two lines of written text to describe a few notes, a single character could represent one note, or sometimes as many as nine. This notation form was called ''jianzi pu'' ( 字譜) (literally "reduced notation") and it was a major advance in qin notation. It was so successful that from the Ming dynasty onwards, a great many qinpu (琴 ) (qin tablature collections) appeared, the most famous and useful being "Shenqi Mipu" (The Mysterious and Marvellous Tablature) compiled by Zhu Quan, the 17th son of the founder of the Ming dynasty. In the 1960s, Zha Fuxi discovered more than 130 qinpu that contain well over 3360 pieces of written music. However, many qinpu compiled before the Ming dynasty are now lost, and many pieces have remained unplayed for hundreds of years.


Repertoire

Qin pieces are usually around three to eight minutes in length, with the longest being "Guangling San", which is 22 minutes long. Other famous pieces include "Liu Shui" (Flowing Water), "
Yangguan Yangguan, or Yangguan Pass (), is a mountain pass that was fortified by Emperor Wu of the Western Han Dynasty around 120 BC and used as an outpost in the colonial dominions adjacent to ancient China. It is located approximately southwest of Du ...
San Die" (Three Refrains on the Yang Pass Theme), "Meihua San Nong" (Three Variations on the Plum Blossom Theme), "Xiao Xiang Shui Yun" (Mist and Clouds over the Xiao and Xiang Rivers), and "Pingsha Luo Yan" (Wild Geese Descending on the Sandbank). The average player will generally have a repertoire of around ten pieces which they will aim to play very well, learning new pieces as and when they feel like it or if the opportunity arises. Players mainly learn popular well-transcribed versions, often using a recording as a reference. In addition to learning to play established or ancient pieces very well, highly skilled qin players may also compose or improvise, although the player must be very good and extremely familiar with the instrument to do this successfully. A number of qin melodies are program music depicting the natural world.


Transcription

Dapu (打譜) is the transcribing of old tablature into a playable form. Since qin tablature does not indicate note value, tempo or rhythm, the player must work it out for themselves. Normally, qin players will learn the rhythm of a piece through a teacher or master. They sit facing one another, with the student copying the master. The tablature will only be consulted if the teacher is not sure of how to play a certain part. Because of this, traditional qinpu do not indicate them (though near the end of the Qing dynasty, a handful of qinpu had started to employ various rhythm indicating devices, such as dots). If one did not have a teacher, then one had to work out the rhythm by themselves. But it would be a mistake to assume that qin music is devoid of rhythm and melody. By the 20th century, there had been attempts to try to replace the "jianzi pu" notation, but so far, it has been unsuccessful; since the 20th century, qin music is generally printed with staff notation above the qin tablature. Because qin tablature is so useful, logical, easy, and the fastest way (once the performer knows how to read the notation) of learning a piece, it is invaluable to the qin player and cannot totally be replaced (just as staff notation cannot be replaced for Western instruments, because they developed a notation system that suited the instruments well). There is a saying that goes "a short piece requires three months
f dapu to complete F, or f, is the sixth letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''ef'' (pronounced ), and the plural is ''efs''. Hist ...
and a long piece requires three years". In actual practice, it needn't be that long to dapu a piece, but suggests that the player will have not only memorised the piece off by heart, but also have their fingering, rhythm and timing corrected. And afterwards, the emotion must be put into the piece. Therefore, it could be said that it really does require three months or years to finish dapu of a piece in order for them to play it to a very high standard.


Rhythm in qin music

It has already been discussed that qin music has a rhythm and that it is only vaguely indicated in the tablature. Though there is an amount of guesswork involved, the tablature has clues to indicate rhythm, such as repeating motifs, an indication of phrases or how the notation is arranged. Throughout the history of the qinpu, we see many attempts to indicate this rhythm more explicitly, involving devices like dots to make beats. Probably, one of the major projects to regulate the rhythm to a large scale was the compilers of the ''Qinxue Congshu'' tablature collection of the 1910s to 1930s. The construction of the written tablature was divided into two columns. The first was further divided into about three lines of a grid, each line indicating a varied combination of lyrics, gongche tablature, se tablature, pitch, and/or beats depending on the score used. The second column was devoted to qin tablature. Western composers have noticed that the rhythm in a piece of qin music can change; once they seem to have got a beat, the beats change. This is due to the fact that qin players may use some free rhythm in their playing. Whatever beat they use will depend on the emotion or the feeling of the player, and how they interpret the piece. However, some melodies have sections of fixed rhythm which are played the same way generally. The main theme of ''Meihua Sannong'', for example, uses this. Some sections of certain melodies require the player to play faster with force to express the emotion of the piece. Examples include the middle sections of ''Guangling San'' and ''Xiaoxiang Shuiyun''. Other pieces, such as ''Jiu Kuang'' has a fixed rhythm throughout the entire piece.


Organology

While acoustics dictated the general form and construction of the guqin, its external form could and did take on a huge amount of variation, whether it be from the embellishments or even the basic structure of the instrument. Qin tablatures from the Song era onwards have catalogued a plethora of qin forms. All, however, obey very basic rules of acoustics and
symbol A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different conc ...
ism of form. The qin uses strings of silk or metal- nylon and is tuned in accordance to traditional principles. Ancient guqins were made of little more than wood and strings of twisted silk. Ornaments included inlaid dots of mother-of-pearl or other similar materials. Traditionally, the sound board was made of Chinese parasol wood
firmiana simplex ''Firmiana simplex'', commonly known as the Chinese parasol tree, Chinese parasoltree, or wutong (), is an ornamental plant of tree size assigned to the family Malvaceae that was formerly in the family Sterculiaceae in the order Malvales, and i ...
, its rounded shape symbolising the heavens. The bottom was made of Chinese Catalpa, ''
Catalpa ovata ''Catalpa ovata'', the yellow catalpa or Chinese catalpa (), is a pod-bearing tree native to China. Compared to ''C. speciosa'', it is much smaller, typically reaching heights between . The inflorescences form bunches of creamy white flowers wi ...
'', its flat shape symbolising earth. Modern instruments are most frequently made of Cunninghamia or other similar timbers. The traditional finish is of raw lacquer mixed with powdered deer horn, and the finishing process could take months of curing to complete. The finish develops cracks over time, and these cracks are believed to improve the instrument's sound as the wood and lacquer release tension. An antique guqin's age can be determined by this snake like crack pattern called "duanwen" (斷紋).


Construction

According to tradition, the qin originally had five strings, representing the five elements of metal, wood, water, fire and earth. Later, in the Zhou dynasty,
Zhou Wen Wang King Wen of Zhou (; 1152–1050 BC, the Cultured King) was Count of Zhou during the late Shang dynasty in ancient China. Although frequently confused with his fourth son Duke of Zhou, also known as "Lord Zhou", they are different historical perso ...
added a sixth string to mourn his son,
Boyikao Bo Yikao was the eldest son of King Wen of Zhou and the elder brother of King Wu who was the founder of the Zhou dynasty of ancient China. As a member of the Zhou royal house, his family name was Ji (姬). "Bo" refers to his status as the old ...
. His successor, Zhou Wu Wang, added a seventh string to motivate his troops into battle with the Shang. The thirteen ''hui'' on the surface represent the 13 months of the year (the extra 13th is the 'leap month' in the lunar calendar). The surface board is round to represent Heaven and the bottom board flat to represent the earth. The entire length of the qin (in
Chinese measurements Chinese units of measurement, known in Chinese as the ''shìzhì'' ("market system"), are the traditional units of measurement of the Han Chinese. Although Chinese numerals have been decimal (base-10) since the Shang, several Chinese measures u ...
) is 3 ''chi'', 6 ''cun'' and 5 ''fen''; representing the 365 days of the year (though this is just a standard since qins can be shorter or longer depending on the period's measurement standard or the maker's preference). Each part of the qin has meaning, some more obvious, like "dragon pool" and "phoenix pond".


Strings

Until recently, the guqin's strings were always made of various thicknesses of twisted silk, but since then most players use modern nylon-flatwound
steel Steel is an alloy made up of iron with added carbon to improve its strength and fracture resistance compared to other forms of iron. Many other elements may be present or added. Stainless steels that are corrosion- and oxidation-resistant ty ...
strings. This was partly due to the scarcity of high-quality silk strings and partly due to the newer strings' greater durability and louder tone. Silk strings are made by gathering a prescribed number of strands of silk thread, then twisting them tightly together. The twisted cord of strings is then wrapped around a frame and immersed in a vat of liquid composed of a special mixture of natural
glue Adhesive, also known as glue, cement, mucilage, or paste, is any non-metallic substance applied to one or both surfaces of two separate items that binds them together and resists their separation. The use of adhesives offers certain advant ...
that binds the strands together. The strings are taken out and left to dry, before being cut into the appropriate length. The top thicker strings (i.e. strings one to four) are further wrapped in a thin silk thread, coiled around the core to make it smoother. According to ancient manuals, there are three distinctive gauges of thickness that one can make the strings. The first is ''taigu'' reat Antiquitywhich is the standard gauge, the ''zhongqing'' iddle Clarityis thinner, whilst the ''jiazhong'' dded Thicknessis thicker. According to the ''Yugu Zhai Qinpu'', ''zhongqing'' is the best. The currently used silk string gauge standard was defined by Suzhou silk string maker Pan Guohui (潘國輝). Although most contemporary players use nylon-wrapped metal strings, some argue that nylon-wrapped metal strings cannot replace silk strings for their refinement of tone. Additionally, nylon-wrapped metal strings can cause damage to the wood of old qins. Many traditionalists feel that the sound of the fingers of the left hand sliding on the strings to be a distinctive feature of qin music. The modern nylon-wrapped metal strings were very smooth in the past, but are now slightly modified in order to capture these sliding sounds. Around 2007, a new type of strings were produced made of mostly a nylon core coiled with nylon like the metal-nylon strings, possibly in imitation of Western catgut strings. The sound is similar to the metal-nylon strings but without the metallic tone to them (one of the main reasons why traditionalists do not like the metal-nylon strings). The nylon strings can be tuned to standard pitch without breaking and can sustain their tuning whatever the climate, unlike silk. The strings have various names in China, but they are advertised as sounding like silk strings prior to the 1950s, when silk string production stopped. Traditionally, the strings were wrapped around the goose feet, but a device has been invented, which is a block of wood attached to the goose feet, with pins similar to those used to tune the
guzheng The zheng () or gu zheng (), is a Chinese plucked zither. The modern guzheng commonly has 21, 25, or 26 strings, is long, and is tuned in a major pentatonic scale. It has a large, resonant soundboard made from ''Paulownia'' wood. Other co ...
protruding out at the sides, so one can string and tune the qin using a tuning wrench. This is good for those who lack the physical strength to pull and add tension to the strings when wrapping the ends around the goose feet. However, the tuning device looks rather unsightly and thus many qin players prefer the traditional manner of tuning; many also feel that the strings should be firmly wrapped around the goose feet in order that the sound may be "grounded" into the qin; and some feel that the device which covers the phoenix pond sound hole has a negative effect on the sound volume and quality.


Tuning

To string a guqin, one traditionally had to tie a fly's head knot (''yingtou jie'') at one end of the string, and slip the string through the twisted cord (''rongkou'') which goes into holes at the head of the qin and then out the bottom through the tuning pegs (''zhen''). The string is dragged over the bridge (''yueshan'' 『岳山』), across the surface board, over the nut (''longyin'' dragon gums) to the back of the qin, where the end is wrapped around one of two legs (''fengzu'' "phoenix feet" or ''yanzu'' "geese feet"). Afterwards, the strings are fine-tuned using the tuning pegs (sometimes, rosin is used on the part of the tuning peg that touches the qin body to stop it from slipping, especially if the qin is tuned to higher pitches). The most common tuning, "zheng diao" 〈正調〉, is pentatonic: 5 6 1 2 3 5 6 (which can be also played as 1 2 4 5 6 1 2) in the traditional Chinese number system or jianpu (i.e. 1=do, 2=re, etc.). Today this is generally interpreted to mean C D F G A c d, but this should be considered sol la do re mi sol la, since historically the qin was not tuned to absolute pitch. Other tunings are achieved by adjusting the tension of the strings using the tuning pegs at the head end. Thus ''manjiao diao'' ("slackened third string") gives 1 2 3 5 6 1 2 and ''ruibin diao'' ("raised fifth string") gives 1 2 4 5 7 1 2, which is transposed to 2 3 5 6 1 2 3.


Playing context

The guqin is nearly always played as a solo instrument since its quietness of tone means that it cannot compete with the sounds of most other instruments or an ensemble. It can, however, be played together with a '' xiao'' (end-blown bamboo flute), with other qin, or played while singing. In old times, the '' se'' (a long zither with movable bridges and 25 strings) was frequently used in duets with the qin. However, the ''se'' has not survived, though duet tablature scores for the instruments are preserved in a few ''qinpu'', and the master qin player Wu Jinglüe was one of only a few in the twentieth century who knew how to play it together with qin in duet. Lately there has been a trend to use other instruments to accompany the qin, such as the '' xun'' (ceramic ocarina), ''
pipa The pipa, pípá, or p'i-p'a () is a traditional Chinese musical instrument, belonging to the plucked category of instruments. Sometimes called the "Chinese lute", the instrument has a pear-shaped wooden body with a varying number of frets rang ...
'' (four-stringed pear-shaped lute), '' dizi'' (transverse bamboo flute), and others for more experimental purposes. In order for an instrument to accompany the qin, its sound must be mellow and not overwhelm the qin. Thus, the ''xiao'' generally used for this purpose is one pitched in the
key Key or The Key may refer to: Common meanings * Key (cryptography), a piece of information that controls the operation of a cryptography algorithm * Key (lock), device used to control access to places or facilities restricted by a lock * Key (map ...
of F, known as ''qin xiao'' 「琴簫」, which is narrower than an ordinary ''xiao''. If one sings to qin songs (which is rare nowadays) then one should not sing in an operatic or folk style as is common in China, but rather in a very low pitched and deep way; and the range in which one should sing should not exceed one and a half octaves. The style of singing is similar to that used to recite Tang poetry. In order fully to appreciate qin songs, one needs to become accustomed to the eccentric singing style adopted by certain players of the instrument, such as Zha Fuxi. Traditionally, the qin was played in a quiet
studio A studio is an artist or worker's workroom. This can be for the purpose of acting, architecture, painting, pottery (ceramics), sculpture, origami, woodworking, scrapbooking, photography, graphic design, filmmaking, animation, industrial design ...
or room by oneself, or with a few friends; or played outdoors in places of outstanding natural beauty. Nowadays, many qin players perform at concerts in large concert halls, almost always, out of necessity, using electronic pickups or microphones to amplify the sound. Many qin players attend yajis, at which a number of qin players, music lovers, or anyone with an interest in Chinese culture can come along to discuss and play the qin. In fact, the yaji originated as a multi-media gathering involving the four arts: qin, Go,
calligraphy Calligraphy (from el, link=y, καλλιγραφία) is a visual art related to writing. It is the design and execution of lettering with a pen, ink brush, or other writing instrument. Contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as "t ...
, and painting.


Ritual use of the qin

Being an instrument associated with scholars, the guqin was also played in a ritual context, especially in '' yayue'' in China, and ''
aak ''Aak'' is a genre of Korean court music. It is an imported form of the Chinese court music ''yayue'', and means "elegant music". ''Aak'' was performed almost exclusively in state sacrificial rites, and in the present day it is performed in ce ...
'' in Korea. The National Center for Korean Traditional Performing Arts continues to perform
Munmyo jeryeak Munmyo (more specifically Seoul Munmyo or Seonggyungwan Munmyo) is Korea's primary temple of Confucius ("munmyo" is also the general Korean term for a temple of Confucius). It is located in central Seoul, South Korea, on the campus of Sungkyunk ...
(Confucian ritual music), using the last two surviving ''aak'' melodies from the importation of yayue from the Song dynasty emperor
Huizong Huizong are different temple names used for emperors of China. It may refer to: *Wang Yanjun (died 935, reigned 928–935), emperor of the Min dynasty * Emperor Huizong of Western Xia (1060–1086, reigned 1067–1086), emperor of Western Xia *Empe ...
in 1116, including in the ensemble the ''seul'' (se) and ''geum'' (금; qin). The Korean ''geum'' used in this context has evolved to be slightly different when compared to the normal ''qin'' in that there are 14 instead of 13 ''hui'' and that they are not placed correctly according to the harmonic positions besides other different construction features. The finger techniques are more closer to ''gayageum'' technique than it is to the complex ones of the qin. As the qin never gained a following in Korean society, the ritual ''geum'' became the fossilised form of it and to all intents and purposes unplayable for a qin player. The Korean scholars never adopted the qin but instead created their own instrument, the ''
geomungo The geomungo (also spelled ''komungo'' or ''kŏmun'go'') or ''hyeongeum'' (literally "black zither", also spelled ''hyongum'' or ''hyŏn'gŭm'') is a traditional Korean plucked zither with both bridges and frets. ''Geomungo'' is a representative ...
'' (玄琴), which adopted much of the qin's lore and aesthetics and essentially taking the qin's place as the scholars' instrument. In China, the qin was still in use in ritual ceremonies of the imperial court, such can be seen in the court paintings of imperial sacrifices of the Qing court (e.g. ''The Yongzheng Emperor Offering Sacrifices at the Altar of the God of Agriculture'', 1723–35). The qin also have many variations with a different number of strings, such as during Song Taizong's reign, but these variations never survived the changes of dynasty and so today the normal qin is used. In Japan, the qin was never adopted into ritual music, but for a time in the late Edo period the qin was adopted by some scholars and Buddhist monks. The Guqin was later adjusted and adopted into general Japanese folk music as the
Koto Koto may refer to: * Koto (band), an Italian synth pop group * Koto (instrument), a Japanese musical instrument * Koto (kana), a ligature of two Japanese katakana * Koto (traditional clothing), a traditional dress made by Afro-Surinamese women * ...
(琴) The guqin was also used in the ritual music of Vietnam, where it was called
cầm
'.


Qin aesthetics

When the qin is played, a number of
aesthetic Aesthetics, or esthetics, is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of beauty and taste, as well as the philosophy of art (its own area of philosophy that comes out of aesthetics). It examines aesthetic values, often expressed th ...
elements are involved. The first is musicality. In the second section of "Pingsha Luoyan", for example, the initial few bars contain a ''nao'' vibrato followed by a phase of sliding up and down the string, even when the sound has already become inaudible (). The average person trained in music may question whether this is really " music". Normally, some players would pluck the string very lightly to create a very quiet sound. For some players, this plucking isn't necessary. Instead of trying to force a sound out of the strings one should allow the strings to emit the sounds to which they are naturally predisposed. Some players say that the sliding on the string even when the sound has disappeared is a distinctive feature in qin music. It creates a "space" or "void" in a piece, playing without playing, sound without sound. In fact, when the viewer looks at the player sliding on the string without sounds, the viewer automatically "fills in the notes" with their minds. This creates a connection between player, instrument and listener. This, of course, cannot happen when listening to a recording, as one cannot see the performer. It can also be seen as impractical in recording, as the player would want to convey sound as much as possible towards a third audience. But in fact, there is sound, the sound coming from the fingers sliding on the string. With a really good qin, silk strings, and a perfectly quiet environment, all the tones can be sounded. Since the music is more player-oriented than listener oriented, and the player knows the music, he/she can hear it even if the sound is not there. With silk strings, the sliding sound might be called the qi or "life force" of the music. The really empty sounds are the pauses between notes. However, if one cannot create a sound that can be heard when sliding on a string, it is generally acceptable to lightly pluck the string to create a very quiet sound.


In popular culture

As a symbol of high culture, the qin continually appears in many forms of Chinese popular culture to varying degrees of accuracy. References are made to the qin in a variety of media including TV episodes and films. Actors often possess limited knowledge on how to play the instrument and instead they mime it to a pre-recorded piece by a qin player. Sometimes the music is erroneously mimed to
guzheng The zheng () or gu zheng (), is a Chinese plucked zither. The modern guzheng commonly has 21, 25, or 26 strings, is long, and is tuned in a major pentatonic scale. It has a large, resonant soundboard made from ''Paulownia'' wood. Other co ...
music, rather than qin music. A more faithful representation of the qin is in the Zhang Yimou film '' Hero'', in which Xu Kuanghua plays an ancient version of the qin in the courtyard scene while Nameless and Long Sky fight at a
weiqi Go is an abstract strategy board game for two players in which the aim is to surround more territory than the opponent. The game was invented in China more than 2,500 years ago and is believed to be the oldest board game continuously played to ...
parlor. In fact, it is mimed to the music played by Liu Li, formerly a professor at the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. It is suggested that Xu made the qin himself. The qin was also featured in the
2008 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremony The 2008 Summer Olympics opening ceremony was held at the Beijing National Stadium, also known as the ''Bird's Nest''. It began at 20:00 China Standard Time ( UTC+08:00) on Friday, 8 August 2008, as the number 8 is considered to be auspicious. ...
in Beijing, played by Chen Leiji (陳雷激). The qin is also used in many classical Chinese novels, such as Cao Xueqin's '' Dream of the Red Chamber'' and various others. The qin is also used in many contemporary Chinese novels, notably the 2016 novel '' Mo Dao Zu Shi'', as well as the 2019 live action series adaptation, '' The Untamed'', in which the qin is used as a spiritual tool of protagonist Lan Wangji. Behind the scenes footage of production of the series revealed that several actors were given qin lessons prior to filming to prepare them for their roles as characters that played the instrument.


Electric guqin

The electric guqin was first developed in the late 20th century by adding electric guitar–style magnetic pickups to a regular acoustic guqin, allowing the instrument to be amplified through an instrument amplifier or PA system.


Related instruments

The Japanese
ichigenkin The is a Japanese single-stringed plucked zither. Its body is a slender, slightly curved plank carved from ''kiri'' (''Paulownia tomentosa'') wood. Its raw silk string is plucked with a tubular plectrum placed on the index finger of the right han ...
, a monochord zither, is believed to be derived from the qin. The qin handbook ''Lixing Yuanya'' (1618) includes some melodies for a one-string qin, and the ''Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu'' contains a picture and description of such an instrument. The modern ichigenkin apparently first appeared in Japan just after that time. However, the ''honkyoku''〔本曲〕 (standard repertoire) of the ichigenkin today most closely resembles that of the
shamisen The , also known as the or (all meaning "three strings"), is a three-stringed traditional Japanese musical instrument derived from the Chinese instrument . It is played with a plectrum called a bachi. The Japanese pronunciation is usual ...
. The Korean ''
geomungo The geomungo (also spelled ''komungo'' or ''kŏmun'go'') or ''hyeongeum'' (literally "black zither", also spelled ''hyongum'' or ''hyŏn'gŭm'') is a traditional Korean plucked zither with both bridges and frets. ''Geomungo'' is a representative ...
'' may also be related, albeit distantly. Korean literati wanted to play an instrument the way their Chinese counterparts played the qin. The repertoire was largely the ''geomungo'' parts for melodies played by the court orchestra.


See also

*
Contemporary guqin players This is a list of contemporary players of the guqin of the 20th and 21st centuries. It attempts to list most ''notable'' players (i.e. if they are publicly known and/or have made a significant contribution to qin music). Table guide *Personal Nam ...
*
Guqin aesthetics The guqin is a Chinese musical instrument with a long history of being played since ancient times. When the guqin is played, a number of aesthetic elements are involved. Aesthetics The first aesthetic is musicality. In the second section of "Pi ...
*
Guqin construction The construction of the guqin Chinese zither is a complex process like any other musical instrument. However, there is much symbolism in the choice of materials, the shape or form of the instrument that are important things to consider when creating ...
* Guqin playing technique *
Guqin schools A qin school (琴派 ''qin pai'' in Chinese) is a school of guqin players that play in a style that is different from other styles. People often talk about regional styles because such a model simplifies things — and because it is still somewhat ...
*
Guqin tunings There are many different tunings for the guqin. Traditional tuning theory To string a qin, one traditionally had to tie a butterfly knot (''shengtou jie'' 『 蠅 頭 結/蝇头结』) at one end of the string, and slip the string through the twi ...
* List of Chinese musical instruments *
Qinpu Qinpu () are tablature Sheet music, score collections for the guqin, a Chinese musical instrument. Description Qinpu are collections of tablatures of music for the guqin. In the past, music was passed on from teacher to student. Only recently ...
* Se * Yayue *
Koto Koto may refer to: * Koto (band), an Italian synth pop group * Koto (instrument), a Japanese musical instrument * Koto (kana), a ligature of two Japanese katakana * Koto (traditional clothing), a traditional dress made by Afro-Surinamese women * ...


Footnotes


References

;Chinese books on qin: *Zha, Fuxi (1958). ''Cunjian Guqin Qupu Jilan'' 【存見古琴曲譜輯覽】. Beijing: The People's Music Press. . *Xu, Jian (1982). ''Qinshi Chubian'' 【琴史初編】. Beijing: The People's Music Press. . *Gong, Yi (1999). ''Guqin Yanzoufa'' 【古琴演奏法】; 2nd ed., rev. inc. 2 CDs. Shanghai: Shanghai Educational Press. *Li, Mingzhong (2000). ''Zhongguo Qinxue'' 【中國琴學】 卷壹. Volume one. Shanxi: Shanxi Society Science Magazine Association. *Yin, Wei (2001). ''Zhongguo Qinshi Yanyi'' 【中國琴史演義】. Yunnan: People's Press of Yunnan. /I‧866 *Zhang, Huaying (2005). ''Gu Qin'' 【古琴】. Guizhou: Zhejiang People's Press. :Part of the ''Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity Collection'' 【人類口頭與非物質文化遺產叢書】. *Guo, Ping (2006). ''Guqin Congtan'' 【古琴叢談】. Jinan: Shandong Book Press. ;Qinpu: *Zhu, Quan (1425, 2001). ''Shenqi Mipu'' 【神奇秘譜】. Beijing: Cathay Bookshop. /J‧284 *Xu, Shangying (1673, 2005). ''Dahuan Ge Qinpu'' 【大還閣琴譜】. Beijing: Cathay Bookshop. /J‧322 *Zhou, Zi'an (1722, 2000). ''Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu'' 【五知齋琴譜】. Beijing: Cathay Bookshop. /J‧237 *Chu, Fengjie (1855). ''Yugu Zhai Qinpu'' 【與古齋琴譜】. Fujian: Private publication. *Zhang, He (1864, 1998). ''Qinxue Rumen'' 【琴學入門】. Beijing: Cathay Bookshop. /J‧236 *Yang, Zongji (1910–1931, 1996). ''Qinxue Congshu'' 【琴學叢書】. Beijing: Cathay Bookshop. /I‧139 *Wang, Binglu (1931, 2005). ''Mei'an Qinpu'' 【楳盦珡諩】. Beijing: China Bookstore. /J‧331 *Wu, Jinglüe and Wenguang (2001). ''Yushan Wushi Qinpu'' 【虞山吳氏琴譜】 ''The Qin Music Repertoire of the Wu Family''. Beijing: Eastern Press. /I‧78 *Gu, Meigeng (2004). ''Qinxue Beiyao (shougao ben)'' 【琴學備要(手稿本)】. Shanghai: Shanghai Music Press. ;Journals, newsletters and periodicals: *''Zhongguo Huabao'' 【中國畫報】. July 1986. *Beijing Guqin Research Association. ''Beijing Qin-xun'' 【北京琴訊】. March 2001 (volume 71). *Parabola, Vol XXIII, No. 2, Summer 1998, pp 56–62: J.L. Walker "No Need to Listen! A Conversation Between Sun Yu-ch'in and J.L. Walker" ;English books on qin: *Gulik, Robert Hans van (1940, 1969). ''The Lore of the Chinese Lute''. 2nd ed., rev. Rutland, Vt., and Tokyo: Charles Tuttle and Sophia University; Monumenta Nipponica. *Gulik, Robert Hans van (1941). ''Hsi K'ang and his Poetical Essay on the Chinese Lute''. Tokyo: '' Monumenta Nipponica''. *Lieberman, Fredric (1983). ''A Chinese Zither Tutor: The Mei-an Ch'in-p'u''. Trans. and commentary. Washington and Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. *Yung, Bell (2008). ''The Last of China's Literati: The Music, Poetry and Life of Tsar The-yun''. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. *Gulik, Robert Hans van (2011). ''The Lore of the Chinese Lute''. 3rd ed. Bangkok: Orchid Press. ;Spanish books on qin: *Lieberman, Fredric (2008). ''Un Manual de Cítara China: el Meian qinpu''. (J.M. Vigo, Trans.). Barcelona: www.citarachina.org. (1983). ;French books on qin: *Goormaghtigh, Georges (1990). ''L'art du Qin. Deux textes d'esthétique musicale chinoise''. Bruxelles : Institut belge des Hautes études chinoises. ISSN 0775-4612 *Goormaghtigh, Georges (2010). ''Le chant du pêcheur ivre: Ecrits sur la musique des lettrés chinois''. Gollion: Infolio éditions. *Goormaghtigh Georges (2018). ''Le grain des choses: Petit musée du qin'' d-book Geneva : (self-publishing) https://legraindeschoses.com/ ;Non-qin books (or books with a section on the qin): * DeWoskin, Kenneth J. (1982) A Song for One or Two: ''Music and the Concept of Art in Early China. University of Michigan Press, 1982. Paper: '' *Dr. L. Wieger, S. J. (1915, 1927, 1965). ''Chinese Characters: Their origin, etymology, history, classification and signification. A thorough study from Chinese documents''. L. Davrout, S. J. (trans.). New York: Dover Publications. *Zhang Yushu et al. (1921). ''Kangxi Zidian'' 【康熙字典】. Shanghai: Shanghai Old Books Distribution Place. *Herdan, Innes (trans.) (1973, 2000). ''300 Tang Poems'' 【英譯唐詩三百首】, Yee Chiang (illus.). Taipei: The Far East Book Co., Ltd. *Rawski, E. Evelyn & Rawson, Jessica (ed.) (2005). ''CHINA: The Three Emperors 1662—1795''. London: Royal Academy of Arts. ;Video resources *The ''Heart of Qin in Hong Kong'' (2010), Director: Maryam Goormathtigh, 52 min, documentary, Hong Kong China (Language: Cantonese, Subtitle: Chinese and English) ;Discography *Sou Si-tai (2007), ''Le pêcheur et le bûcheron. Le qin, cithare des lettrés'', AIMP LXXXII VDE-GALLO, CD-1214 *''
Tsar Teh-Yun Tsar Teh-Yun ( zh, s=蔡德允, p=Cai Deyun; 26 November 1905 – 10 June 2007) was a Chinese musician and poet who was among the leading guqin players of her time. Life and career Tsar Teh-Yun was born on 26 November 1905 in Shanghai, China. S ...
(1905-2007) maitre du qin'' (2014),  cd-set+54 pages booklet in English/French AIMP-VDE Gallo, VDE CD 1432/1433


External links


John Thompson's on the ''Guqin'' Silk String Zither
A host of information on the qin and silk strings for qins in English, including extensive study of Shenqi Mipu and analysis of playing style, plus useful section on qin sources

on the Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Silk on Wood
A Feature Radio Documentary by
Robert Iolini Robert John Iolini (born 1960) is an Australian-born composer, artist, filmmaker and radio producer. Early life and education Iolini completed a Master of Arts degree in Advanced Composition under the supervision of Professor Richard Vella in 1 ...
about the Silk String Qin and Madame
Tsar Teh-Yun Tsar Teh-Yun ( zh, s=蔡德允, p=Cai Deyun; 26 November 1905 – 10 June 2007) was a Chinese musician and poet who was among the leading guqin players of her time. Life and career Tsar Teh-Yun was born on 26 November 1905 in Shanghai, China. S ...
. The website includes online video performances by the Deyin Qin Society of Hong Kong.
Chinese Guqin and Notation
Judy (Pei-You) Chang's very detailed and well illustrated site explaining fingering techniques, including sections on structure, forms and various information
A Complete Study of the Chinese Zither
from 1670
Chinese Guqin cliques and where they originated
A specific analysis of most Guqin cliques and play styles, also have some analysis about their originations

A timetable of different Chinese dynasty to help people understand the period of Guqin History

A Guqin store website page in LA {{Authority control Chinese musical instruments Early musical instruments Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity Zithers