''Paspalum scrobiculatum'', commonly called Kodo millet or Koda millet,
[A. E. Grant (1898), "Poisonous Koda millet". Letter to ''Nature'', volume 57, page 271.][Harry Nelson Vinall(1917), ''Foxtail Millet: Its Culture and Utilization in the United States''. Issue 793 of ''Farmers' bulletin'', U.S. Department of Agriculture. 28 pages.] is an annual grain that is grown primarily in Nepal (not to be confused with
Kodo __NOTOC__
Kodo may refer to:
Japan
* ''Kōdō'' (香道), ceremonial appreciation of incense
* Nippon Kodo (日本香堂), an incense company
* Kodō (taiko group) (鼓童), a ''taiko'' drumming group
* Kodo-kai (弘道会), a yakuza criminal orga ...
(Finger millet, ''
Eleusine coracana
''Eleusine coracana'', or finger millet, also known as ragi in India, kodo in Nepal, is an annual herbaceous plant widely grown as a cereal crop in the arid and semiarid areas in Africa and Asia. It is a tetraploid and self-pollinating species ...
'')) and also in India, Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, and in West Africa from where it originated. It is grown as a minor crop in most of these areas, with the exception of the Deccan plateau in India where it is grown as a major food source. It is a very hardy crop that is drought tolerant and can survive on marginal soils where other crops may not survive, and can supply 450–900 kg of grain per hectare.
[Heuzé V., Tran G., Giger-Reverdin S., 2015. Scrobic (Paspalum scrobiculatum) forage and grain. Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/401 Last updated on October 6, 2015, 12:07] Kodo millet has large potential to provide nourishing food to subsistence farmers in Africa and elsewhere.
The plant is called ''Arikelu'' in the
Telugu language
Telugu (; , ) is a Dravidian language spoken by Telugu people predominantly living in the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, where it is also the official language. It is the most widely spoken member of the Dravidian language fam ...
, ''Varagu'' in
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
, ''Varak (വരക്)'' in
Malayalam
Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian languages, Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (union territory), Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 2 ...
, ''Arka'' in
Kannada
Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
,''Kodo'' in
Hindi
Hindi ( Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been ...
and ''Kodra'' in
Punjabi
Description
Kodo millet is a monocot and an annual grass that grows to heights of approximately four feet. It has an inflorescence that produces 4-6
racemes
A raceme ( or ) or racemoid is an unbranched, indeterminate type of inflorescence bearing flowers having short floral stalks along the shoots that bear the flowers. The oldest flowers grow close to the base and new flowers are produced as the s ...
that are 4–9 cm long. Its slender, light green leaves grow to be 20 to 40 centimeters in length. The seeds it produces are very small and ellipsoidal, being approximately 1.5 mm in width and 2 mm in length; they vary in colour from being light brown to a dark grey. Kodo millet has a shallow root system which may be ideal for intercropping.
History, geography, and ethnography
![Paspalum commersonii at Peradeniya Royal Botanical Garden](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Paspalum_commersonii_at_Peradeniya_Royal_Botanical_Garden.jpg)
''Paspalum scrobiculatum var. scrobiculatum'' is grown in India as an important crop, while ''Paspalum scrobiculatum var. commersonii'' is the wild variety indigenous to Africa.
The kodo millet, also known as cow grass, rice grass, ditch millet, Native Paspalum, or Indian Crown Grass originates in tropical Africa, and it is estimated to have been domesticated in India 3000 years ago. The domestication process is still ongoing. In southern India, it is called varaku or koovaraku. Kodo is probably a corrupt form of kodra, a Hindi name of the plant. It is grown as an annual. It is a minor food crop eaten in many Asian countries, primarily in India where in some regions it is extremely important. It grows wild as a perennial in the west of Africa, where it is eaten as a famine food.
[Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Office of International Affairs, National Research Council. "Kodo Millet". Lost Crops of Africa; Volume 1: Grains. (1996). http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305&page=249] Often it grows as a weed in rice fields. Many farmers do not mind it, as it can be harvested as an alternative crop if their primary crop fails.
In the Southern United States and Hawaii, it is considered to be a noxious weed.
["Paspalum scrobiculatum (grass)." Global Invasive Species Database. (2010). http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1423&lang=EN]
Growing conditions
Kodo millet is propagated from seed, ideally in row planting instead of broadcast sowing. Its preferred soil type is a very fertile, clay-based soil. Var. ''scrobiculatum'' is better suited to dried conditions than its wild counterpart, which requires approximately 800–1200 mm of water annually and is well suited to sub-humid aridity conditions.
With very low competition from other plants or weeds for nutrients, it can grow well in poor-nutrient soils. However, it does best in soils supplemented with a general fertilizer.
The recommended dose for optimal growth is 40 kg of nitrogen plus 20 kg of phosphorus per hectare. A case study in India's Rewa district in 1997 showed a 72% increase in kodo millet grain yields as opposed to no fertilizer. Lodging issues may accompany this. (Please see section "Other farming issues").
[J. M. J. de Wet, K. E. Prasada Rao, M. H. Mengesha and D. E. Brink. "Diversity in Kodo Millet". New York Botanical Garden Press. (1983). ] Kodo millet prefers full light for optimal growth, but can tolerate some partial shading. Its ideal temperature for growth is 25-27 °C. It requires four months until maturity and harvesting.
Other farming issues
The kodo millet is prone to lodging at maturity, causing loss of grain.
To prevent this, limited fertilization is recommended. While plenty of fertilizer dramatically improves yields, there is the risk of lodging accompanying vigorous growth. A good balance is applying 14–22 kg of nitrogen. Lodging also occurs due to heavy rains. Kodo millet is harvested by cutting the stalk of the grass and allowing it to dry in the sun for a day or two. It is then ground to remove the husk. Weather dependency is a major issue related to proper harvesting and storage. Additionally, threshing on roads damages the grains, and husking is a very time-consuming process. Kodo millets are believed by farmers to be the toughest grain to de-husk.
Stress tolerance
The kodo millet can survive well on marginal soils; var. ''scrobiculatum'' requires very little water in order to grow, and thus has very good drought tolerance.
It can be cultivated without an irrigation system. Farmyard manures provide adequate nutrients in terms of adding fertilizer, but kodo millets can still survive on low-nutrient soils. The wild variety is better suited to wetter conditions, and can tolerate flooded areas and swampy ground.
Major weeds, pests and diseases
''
Paspalum ergot'' is a fungal disease to which kodo millet is susceptible. Hardened masses of this fungus, called sclerotia, will grow in place of the millet grain.
These compact fungi growths contain a chemical compound that is poisonous to humans and livestock if consumed, and potentially fatal. It causes damage to the central nervous system, causing excitability in animals and eventually loss of muscle control. If the symptoms are caught early and the animals are removed from the infected food, they have a good chance of recovery. Cleaning the seeds by winnowing them before storage may remove the fungal spores.
Insect pests include:
;Shoot and stem feeders
*shoot fly ''
Atherigona simplex'' (kodo millet shoot fly
)
*''
Atherigona pulla'', ''
Atherigona oryzae'', and ''
Atherigona soccata''
*pink borer ''
Sesamia inferens
''Sesamia inferens'', the Asiatic pink stem borer, gramineous stem borer, pink borer, pink rice borer, pink rice stem borer, pink stem borer, purple borer, purple stem borer or purplish stem borer, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The specie ...
''
;Leaf feeders
*leaf roller ''
Cnaphalocrocis patnalis''
*caseworm ''
Hydrellia philippina
''Hydrellia philippina'' is a fly species in the family Ephydridae. It is a pest of millets.
Distribution
China, India, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam
Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic o ...
''
*armyworms ''
Mythimna separata'' and ''
Spodoptera mauritia
''Spodoptera mauritia'', the lawn armyworm or paddy swarming caterpillar, is a moth of the family Noctuidae. The species was first described by Jean Baptiste Boisduval in 1833. Able to eat many types of food, it is a major pest throughout the w ...
''
*skipper butterfly ''
Pelopidas mathias''
*thrip ''
Stenchaetothrips biformis
''Stenchaetothrips biformis'' is a species of thrips. It is a pest of sorghum
''Sorghum'' () is a genus of about 25 species of flowering plants in the grass family (Poaceae). Some of these species are grown as cereals for human consumption a ...
''
*grasshopper ''
Acrida exaltata
''Acrida exaltata'' is a species of grasshopper in the family Acrididae. It is a pest of sorghum
''Sorghum'' () is a genus of about 25 species of flowering plants in the grass family (Poaceae). Some of these species are grown as cereals for ...
''
;Sucking pests
*mealy bug ''
Brevennia rehi
''Brevennia rehi'', the rice mealybug, is a species of true bug in the family Pseudococcidae. It is a pest of sorghum
''Sorghum'' () is a genus of about 25 species of flowering plants in the grass family (Poaceae). Some of these species are ...
''
*green leafhopper ''
Nephotettix nigropictus
''Nephotettix nigropictus'' is a species of true bug in the family Cicadellidae. It is a pest of millet
Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder an ...
''
;Panicle pests
*green bug ''
Nezara viridula
''Nezara viridula'', commonly known as the southern green stink bug (USA), southern green shield bug (UK) or green vegetable bug (Australia and New Zealand), is a plant-feeding stink bug. Believed to have originated in Ethiopia, it can now be fo ...
'', ''
Dolycoris indicus
''Dolycoris indicus'' is a species of true bug in the family Pentatomidae. It is a pest of millet
Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human ...
''
*earhead bug ''
Leptocorisa acuta
''Leptocorisa acuta'',Thunberg CP (1783) ''Dissertatio entomologica novas insectorum species, sistens, cujus partem secundum, Edman, Upsaliae'' 2: 29-52. the paddy earhead bug, is a species of bug recorded from northern Australia, Malesia and T ...
''
*gall midge ''
Orseolia
''Orseolia'' is a genus of flies belonging to the family Cecidomyiidae.
The species of this genus are found in Southeastern Asia and Northern America.
Species:
*'' Orseolia andropogonis''
*'' Orseolia apludae''
*'' Orseolia bengalensis''
* ...
'' spp.
Consumption and uses
In India, kodo millet is ground into flour and used to make pudding.
In Africa it is cooked like rice. It is also a good choice for animal fodder for cattle, goats, pigs, sheep, and poultry.
In Hawaii, var. scrobiculatum is found to grow well on hillside slopes where other grasses do not flourish. It has the potential to be grown as a food source on hillside farms.
It may also have potential to be used as grass ties on hillside plots to prevent soil erosion, while also providing a famine food as a secondary purpose. It has been noted that it makes a good
cover crop.
Nutritional information
Kodo millet is a nutritious grain and a good substitute to rice or wheat. The grain is composed of 11% of protein, providing 9 grams/100 g consumed.
["Millets: Future of Food & Farming". Millet Network of India. (No date given, accessed November 13th 2013.) http://www.swaraj.org/shikshantar/millets.pdf] It is an excellent source of fibre at 10 grams (37-38%), as opposed to rice, which provides 0.2/100 g, and wheat, which provides 1.2/100 g. An adequate fibre source helps combat the feeling of hunger. Kodo millet contains 66.6 g of carbohydrates and 353 kcal per 100 g of grain, comparable to other millets. It also contains 3.6 g of fat per 100 g. It provides minimal amounts of iron, at 0.5/100 mg, and minimal amounts of calcium, and 27/100 mg.
Kodo millets also contain high amounts of polyphenols, an antioxidant compound.
Practical information
If fertilizer is available, supplemented nitrogen and phosphorus in limited amounts can increase yields dramatically. Before applying fertilizer, soil pH tests should be used to make sure it ideal for proper nutrient uptake. While pH levels can vary across fields, a few may be able to appropriate a rough guess. If pH levels are not suitable, fertilizer cannot be taken up by plants and will be wasted. Planting kodo millet in rows, instead of broadcasting the seeds, will increase yields and make weeding easier. Kodo millet will grow on marginal soils, but only if it has little competition from weeds.
Finally, proper cleaning of the seeds by wind winnowing will help prevent the sclerotia of fungal diseases being consumed accidentally.
Kodo millet seeds can be obtained from the International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
References
External links
{{Taxonbar, from=Q3510828
scrobiculatum
Millets
Cereals