In the European
High Middle Ages
The High Middle Ages, or High Medieval Period, was the periodization, period of European history that lasted from AD 1000 to 1300. The High Middle Ages were preceded by the Early Middle Ages and were followed by the Late Middle Ages, which ended ...
, the typical sword (sometimes academically categorized as the knightly sword, arming sword, or in full, knightly arming sword) was a straight,
double-edged weapon with a single-handed,
cruciform
Cruciform is a term for physical manifestations resembling a common cross or Christian cross. The label can be extended to architectural shapes, biology, art, and design.
Cruciform architectural plan
Christian churches are commonly described ...
(i.e., cross-shaped)
hilt
The hilt (rarely called a haft or shaft) of a knife, dagger, sword, or bayonet is its handle, consisting of a guard, grip and pommel. The guard may contain a crossguard or quillons. A tassel or sword knot may be attached to the guard or pommel. ...
and a blade length of about . This type is frequently depicted in period artwork, and numerous examples have been preserved archaeologically.
The high medieval sword of the
Romanesque period (10th to 13th centuries) developed gradually from the
Viking sword
The Viking Age sword (also Viking sword) or Carolingian sword is the type of sword prevalent in Western and Northern Europe during the Early Middle Ages.
The Viking Age or Carolingian-era sword developed in the 8th century from the Merovingian ...
of the 9th century.
In the
Late Medieval period
The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period was the period of European history lasting from AD 1300 to 1500. The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period (and in much of Europe, the Renai ...
(14th and 15th centuries), late forms of these swords continued to be used, but often as a
sidearm, at that point called "arming swords" and contrasting with the two-handed, heavier
longswords
A longsword (also spelled as long sword or long-sword) is a type of European sword characterized as having a cruciform hilt with a grip for primarily two-handed use (around ), a straight double-edged blade of around , and weighing approximate ...
.
Though the majority of late-medieval arming swords kept their blade properties from previous centuries, there are also surviving specimens from the 15th century that took the form of a late-medieval
estoc
The French estoc is a type of sword, also called a tuck in English, in use from the 14th to the 17th century. It is characterized by a cruciform hilt with a grip for two-handed use and a straight, edgeless, but sharply pointed blade of around to ...
, specialised for use against more heavily armoured opponents. After the end of the medieval period, the arming sword developed into several forms of the early modern one-handed straight swords, such as the
side-sword
The ''spada da lato'' (Italian) or ''side-sword'' is a type of sword popular during the late 16th century.
It is a continuation of the medieval knightly sword, and the immediate predecessor (or early form) of the rapier
A rapier () or is a ...
, the
rapier
A rapier () or is a type of sword with a slender and sharply-pointed two-edged blade that was popular in Western Europe, both for civilian use (dueling and self-defense) and as a military side arm, throughout the 16th and 17th centuries.
Impor ...
, the cavalry-focused ''
Reiter
''Reiter'' or ''Schwarze Reiter'' ("black riders", anglicized ''swart reiters'') were a type of cavalry in 16th to 17th century Central Europe including Holy Roman Empire, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Tsardom of Russia, and others.
...
schwert'' and certain types of
broadsword
The basket-hilted sword is a sword type of the early modern era characterised by a basket-shaped guard that protects the hand. The basket hilt is a development of the quillons added to swords' crossguards since the Late Middle Ages.
In mod ...
.
Terminology
The term "arming sword" () is first used in the 15th century to refer to the single-handed type of sword after it had ceased to serve as the main weapon and was on its way to being used as a
side-sword
The ''spada da lato'' (Italian) or ''side-sword'' is a type of sword popular during the late 16th century.
It is a continuation of the medieval knightly sword, and the immediate predecessor (or early form) of the rapier
A rapier () or is a ...
.
"Arming sword" in late medieval usage specifically refers to the when worn as a side-arm, but as a modern term it may also refer to any single-handed sword in a late medieval context.
The terms "knight's sword" or "knightly sword" are modern terms to specify the sword of the high medieval period.
Period terminology for swords is somewhat fluid. Mostly, the common type of sword in any given period would simply be referred to as "sword" (English , French , Latin etc.).
During the high medieval period, references to swords as "great sword" (, ) or "small" or "very large sword" (, ) does not necessarily indicate their morphology, but simply their relative size.
Oakeshott (1964) notes that this changes in the late medieval period, beginning towards the end of the 20th century, when the "bastard sword" appeared as an early type of what developed into the 1st-century
longsword
A longsword (also spelled as long sword or long-sword) is a type of European sword characterized as having a cruciform hilt with a grip for primarily two-handed use (around ), a straight double-edged blade of around , and weighing approximatel ...
.
The term "romanesque sword" does not see significant use in English, but it is more current in French (), German (), and especially in Slavic languages (such as Czech ), identifying the swords as being contemporary with the corresponding
Romanesque period in art history (roughly 1000 to 1300).
History
The knightly sword develops in the 11th century from the
Viking sword
The Viking Age sword (also Viking sword) or Carolingian sword is the type of sword prevalent in Western and Northern Europe during the Early Middle Ages.
The Viking Age or Carolingian-era sword developed in the 8th century from the Merovingian ...
.
The most evident morphological development is the appearance of the
crossguard
On a sword, the crossguard, or cross-guard, the individual bars on either side known as quillon, is a bar of metal at right angles to the blade, placed between the blade and the hilt. The crossguard was developed in the European sword around the ...
. The transitional swords of the 11th century are also known as
Norman swords.
Already in the 10th century, some of the "finest and most elegant" of the
Ulfberht
The Ulfberht swords are a group of about 170 medieval swords found primarily in Northern Europe, dated to the 9th to 11th centuries, with blades inlaid with the inscription ''+VLFBERH+T or +VLFBERHT+''. The word "Ulfberht" is a Frankish pers ...
type of "Viking" (actually Carolingian/Frankish) swords began to exhibit a more slender blade geometry, moving the center of mass closer to the hilt to improve wieldability.
The one-handed sword of the high medieval period was typically used with a
shield
A shield is a piece of personal armour held in the hand, which may or may not be strapped to the wrist or forearm. Shields are used to intercept specific attacks, whether from close-ranged weaponry or projectiles such as arrows, by means of a ...
or
buckler
A buckler (French ''bouclier'' 'shield', from Old French ''bocle, boucle'' 'boss') is a small shield, up to 45 cm (up to 18 in) in diameter, gripped in the fist with a central handle behind the boss. While being used in Europe since an ...
.
In the late medieval period, when the
longsword
A longsword (also spelled as long sword or long-sword) is a type of European sword characterized as having a cruciform hilt with a grip for primarily two-handed use (around ), a straight double-edged blade of around , and weighing approximatel ...
came to predominate, the single-handed sword was retained as a common sidearm, especially of the
estoc
The French estoc is a type of sword, also called a tuck in English, in use from the 14th to the 17th century. It is characterized by a cruciform hilt with a grip for two-handed use and a straight, edgeless, but sharply pointed blade of around to ...
type, and came to be referred to as an "arming sword", later evolving into the
cut and thrust swords of the
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas ...
.
File:HeinrichusII.jpg, Great Seal of Henry II of England
Henry II (5 March 1133 – 6 July 1189), also known as Henry Curtmantle (french: link=no, Court-manteau), Henry FitzEmpress, or Henry Plantagenet, was King of England from 1154 until his death in 1189, and as such, was the first Angevin king ...
, showing the king as an armed horseman, .
File:Guido relief.jpg, The so-called ''Guido-Relief'' in the Grossmünster
The Grossmünster (; "great minster") is a Romanesque-style Protestant church in Zürich, Switzerland. It is one of the four major churches in the city (the others being the Fraumünster, Predigerkirche and St. Peterskirche). Its congregation f ...
, Zürich
Zürich () is the list of cities in Switzerland, largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zürich. It is located in north-central Switzerland, at the northwestern tip of Lake Zürich. As of January 2020, the municipality has 43 ...
, depicts two combatants with helmets and kite shields, one with a dagger
A dagger is a fighting knife with a very sharp point and usually two sharp edges, typically designed or capable of being used as a thrusting or stabbing weapon.State v. Martin, 633 S.W.2d 80 (Mo. 1982): This is the dictionary or popular-use de ...
, the other with a sword (inscribed ''GVIDO'' on the blade), .
File:Goliath sword morgan bible 28v.jpg, Detail of a sword being drawn from its scabbard, ''Morgan Bible
The Morgan Bible (mostly Morgan Library & Museum, New York, Ms M. 638), also called the Morgan Picture Bible, Crusader Bible, Shah Abbas Bible or Maciejowski Bible, is a unique medieval illuminated manuscript. It is a picture book Bible consisting ...
'' fol. 28v, .
File:Banded mail German.jpg, Soldiers in mail armour with swords, German miniature of the '' Massacre of the Innocents'', .
File:Gotland-Gothem kyrka Deckenmalerei 04.jpg, Painting of a fighter with sword, helmet and kite shield
A kite shield is a large, almond-shaped shield rounded at the top and curving down to a point or rounded point at the bottom. The term "kite shield" is a reference to the shield's unique shape, and is derived from its supposed similarity to a fly ...
, fresco in Gothem Church
Gothem Church ( sv, Gothems kyrka) is a medieval church in Gothem on the Swedish island of Gotland. Gothic in style, it has remained largely unaltered since the 14th century. It lies in the Diocese of Visby.
History
The presently visible, Gothi ...
, .
File:Codex Manesse (Herzog) von Anhalt.jpg, Illustration mock combat in a tournament
A tournament is a competition involving at least three competitors, all participating in a sport or game. More specifically, the term may be used in either of two overlapping senses:
# One or more competitions held at a single venue and concentr ...
, Codex Manesse
The Codex Manesse (also Große Heidelberger Liederhandschrift or Pariser Handschrift) is a ''Liederhandschrift'' (manuscript containing songs), the single most comprehensive source of Middle High German ''Minnesang'' poetry, written and illustrat ...
(, fol. 17r), .
File:Codex Manesse 204r Von Scharpfenberg.jpg, Illustration of combat with sword and buckler, Codex Manesse
The Codex Manesse (also Große Heidelberger Liederhandschrift or Pariser Handschrift) is a ''Liederhandschrift'' (manuscript containing songs), the single most comprehensive source of Middle High German ''Minnesang'' poetry, written and illustrat ...
(, fol. 204r), .
File:Ms I33 fol 04v.jpg, Fol. 4v of Royal Armouries MS I.33, a combat manual on fighting with sword and buckler, .
File:Gerichtlicher Zweikampf.jpg, Judicial combat with sword and shield depicted in the Dresden ms. of the , 14th century.
File:Milanska vzpoura.jpg, Melee combat between knights on horseback (troops of emperor Henry VII defeating the Guelph
Guelph ( ; 2021 Canadian Census population 143,740) is a city in Southwestern Ontario, Canada. Known as "The Royal City", Guelph is roughly east of Kitchener and west of Downtown Toronto, at the intersection of Highway 6, Highway 7 and Wel ...
revolt led by Guido della Torre
Guido della Torre (27 September 1259 – summer 1312) was a Lord of Milan between 1302 and 1312.
Biography
He was the son of Francesco della Torre (brother of Napoleone della Torre) and Giulia Castiglioni,
As part of the factional turmoil bet ...
in Milan
Milan ( , , Lombard: ; it, Milano ) is a city in northern Italy, capital of Lombardy, and the second-most populous city proper in Italy after Rome. The city proper has a population of about 1.4 million, while its metropolitan city h ...
, 1311), , .
File:Crécy - Grandes Chroniques de France.jpg, Mounted combat with swords at the Battle of Crécy
The Battle of Crécy took place on 26 August 1346 in northern France between a French army commanded by King PhilipVI and an English army led by King EdwardIII. The French attacked the English while they were traversing northern France du ...
(1346), fol. 152v, .
File:Andrea del Castagno 004.jpg, Painting of Condottiere Pippo Spano by Andrea del Castagno
Andrea del Castagno () or Andrea di Bartolo di Bargilla (; – 19 August 1457) was an Italian painter from Florence, influenced chiefly by Masaccio and Giotto di Bondone. His works include frescoes in Sant'Apollonia in Florence and the painte ...
, .
At the end of the medieval period, the
estoc
The French estoc is a type of sword, also called a tuck in English, in use from the 14th to the 17th century. It is characterized by a cruciform hilt with a grip for two-handed use and a straight, edgeless, but sharply pointed blade of around to ...
arming sword develops into the Spanish and the Italian , the predecessors of the early modern
rapier
A rapier () or is a type of sword with a slender and sharply-pointed two-edged blade that was popular in Western Europe, both for civilian use (dueling and self-defense) and as a military side arm, throughout the 16th and 17th centuries.
Impor ...
. In a separate development, the was a heavier single-handed sword used by the
Dalmatian bodyguard of the
Doge of Venice
The Doge of Venice ( ; vec, Doxe de Venexia ; it, Doge di Venezia ; all derived from Latin ', "military leader"), sometimes translated as Duke (compare the Italian '), was the chief magistrate and leader of the Republic of Venice between 726 a ...
in the 16th century. This type influenced the development of the early modern
basket-hilted sword
The basket-hilted sword is a sword type of the early modern era characterised by a basket-shaped guard that protects the hand. The basket hilt is a development of the quillons added to swords' crossguards since the Late Middle Ages.
In mo ...
which in turn developed into the modern (Napoleonic era)
cavalry sword.
Morphology
The most widespread typology for the medieval sword was developed by
Ewart Oakeshott
Ronald Ewart Oakeshott (25 May 1916 – 30 September 2002) was a British illustrator, collector, and amateur historian who wrote prodigiously on medieval arms and armour. He was a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, a Founder Member of the ...
in 1960, mostly based on blade morphology. Oakeshott (1964) introduced an additional typology for
pommel shapes.
A more recent typology is due to Geibig (1991). Geibig's typology focusses on swords from continental the transitional period from the early to the high medieval period (early 8th to late 12th centuries) and does not extend to the late medieval period.
Blade length was usually from ; however, examples exist from .
Pommels were most commonly of the 'Brazil-nut' type from around 1000–1200 AD,
with the 'wheel' pommel appearing in the 11th and predominating from the 13th to 15th centuries.
However, Oakeshott (1991) is emphatic on the point that a medieval sword cannot conclusively be dated based on its morphology. While there are some general trends in the development of fashion, many of the most popular styles of pommels, hilts and blades remain in use throughout the duration of the High Middle Ages.
Blade
The common "knightly swords" of the high medieval period (11th to early 12th centuries) fall under types X to XII.
Type X is the
Norman sword
The spatha was a type of straight and long sword, measuring between 0.5 and 1 m (19.7 and 39.4 in), with a handle length of between 18 and 20 cm (7.1 and 7.9 in), in use in the territory of the Roman Empire during the 1st to 6th centuries A ...
as it developed out of the early medieval
Viking sword
The Viking Age sword (also Viking sword) or Carolingian sword is the type of sword prevalent in Western and Northern Europe during the Early Middle Ages.
The Viking Age or Carolingian-era sword developed in the 8th century from the Merovingian ...
by the 11th century.
Type XI shows the development towards a more tapering point seen during the 12th century.
Type XII is a further development, typical throughout the
Crusades
The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were in ...
period, showing a tapering blade with a shortened fuller. Subtype XIIa comprises the longer and more massive "great-swords" which developed in the mid-13th century, probably designed to counter improvements in mail armour; these are the predecessors of the late medieval longsword (see also
Cawood sword
The Cawood sword is a medieval sword discovered in the River Ouse near Cawood in North Yorkshire in the late 19th century. The blade is of Oakeshott type XII and has inscriptions on both sides. It most likely dates to the early 12th century. ...
).
Type XIII is the knightly sword typical of the later 13th century.
Swords of this type have long, wide blades with parallel edges, terminating in a rounded or spatulate tip, and with a lens-shaped cross-section.
The hilts become somewhat longer, about 15 cm, to allow occasional two-handed use.
The pommels are mostly of the brazil-nut or disk shapes.
Subtype XIIIa has longer blades and hilts. These are the knightly "great-swords", or ''Grans espées d'Allemagne'' which seamlessly develop into the
longsword
A longsword (also spelled as long sword or long-sword) is a type of European sword characterized as having a cruciform hilt with a grip for primarily two-handed use (around ), a straight double-edged blade of around , and weighing approximatel ...
type in the 14th century. Subtype XIIIb describes smaller single-handed swords of similar shape.
The form classified as type XIV develops towards the very end of the high medieval period, around 1270, and remained popular during the early decades of the 14th century. They are often depicted on the
tomb effigies
A tomb effigy, usually a recumbent effigy or, in French, ''gisant'' (French language, French, "lying"), is a sculpted figure on a tomb monument depicting in effigy the deceased. These compositions were developed in Western Europe in the M ...
of English knights of the period, but there are few surviving specimens.
Continuations of the knightly sword as the "arming sword" type of the late medieval period correspond to Oakeshott types XV, XVI and XVIII.
File:Albion Bayeux Medieval Sword 1 (6092216747).jpg, Replica of a type X Norman sword
The spatha was a type of straight and long sword, measuring between 0.5 and 1 m (19.7 and 39.4 in), with a handle length of between 18 and 20 cm (7.1 and 7.9 in), in use in the territory of the Roman Empire during the 1st to 6th centuries A ...
, typical of the mid-11th to 12th centuries
File:Albion Ritter Medieval Sword 02 (6093341001).jpg, Replica of a type XI sword with a "cocked-hat" pommel (type D), typical of the early 13th century
File:The Saint Maurice of Turin 01.jpg, Replica of the "Sword of Saint Maurice" kept in Turin, a type XII sword with "brazil nut" pommel (type A)
File:The Tritonia 01.jpg, Replica of the "Tritonia" sword (kept at the Museum of Medieval Stockholm, Sweden, dated to c. 1300), a type XIIIb sword with a rare type of spherical pommel (type R)
File:Albion Sovereign Medieval Sword 5 (6093465177).jpg, Replica of a type XIV sword with a "wheel" pommel (type J), typical of the period 1270–1340
File:Albion Lancaster Medieval Sword 5 (6093173363).jpg, Replica of a type XV sword, typical of the early-to-mid 15th century
File:Albion Squire Medieval Sword 2 (6094017236).jpg, Replica of a type XVI sword (pommel type K) typical of the early-to-mid 14th century
File:Albion Burgundian Medieval Sword 3 (6092797384).jpg, Replica of a type XVIII sword (pommel type V) typical of the late 15th century
Pommel
Oakeshott's
pommel typology groups medieval pommel shapes into 24 categories (some with subtypes).
Type A is the "brazil-nut" shape inherited from the classical "Viking sword".
Type B includes more rounded forms of A, including the "mushroom" or "tea-cosy" shape.
Type C is the "cocked-hat" shape also found in Viking swords, with D, E and F derived variants of C.
Type G is the disk-pommel found very frequently in medieval swords. Type H is a variant of the disk pommel, with the edges chamfered off. This is one of the most frequently found shapes throughout the 10th to 15th centuries. I, J and K are derived variants of the disk pommel.
Types L to S are rare shapes, in many cases difficult to date.
Type L has a trefoil-like shape; it is possibly limited to Spain in the 12th to 13th centuries.
Type M is a special derived variant of the multi-lobed pommel of the Viking Age, found only in a very limited number of swords (see
Cawood sword
The Cawood sword is a medieval sword discovered in the River Ouse near Cawood in North Yorkshire in the late 19th century. The blade is of Oakeshott type XII and has inscriptions on both sides. It most likely dates to the early 12th century. ...
).
Types P ("shield-shaped") and Q ("flower-shaped") are not even known to be attested in any surviving sword and known only from period artwork. R is a spherical pommel, known only from a few specimens.
Types T to Z are pommel shapes used in the late medieval period;
T is the "fig" or "pear" or "scent-stopper" shape, first used in the early 14th century, but seen with any frequency only after 1360, with numerous derived forms well into the 16th century. U is a "key-shaped" type used only in the second half of the 15th century.
V is the "fish-tail" pommel, used in the 15th century. Z is the "cat's head" shape apparently used exclusively in
Venice
Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 ...
.
Blade inscriptions
Many European sword blades of the high medieval period have blade inscriptions. Inscribed blades were particularly popular during the 12th century. Many of these inscriptions are garbled strings of letters, often apparently inspired by religious formulae, especially the phrase ''in nomine domini'' and the word ''benedictus'' or ''benedicat''.
The 12th-century fashion for blade inscriptions is based on the earlier, 9th to 11th century, tradition of the so-called
Ulfberht swords
The Ulfberht swords are a group of about 170 medieval swords found primarily in Northern Europe, dated to the 9th to 11th centuries, with blades inlaid with the inscription ''+VLFBERH+T or +VLFBERHT+''. The word "Ulfberht" is a Frankish pers ...
. A single stray find from Eastern Germany, dated to the late 11th or possibly early 12th century, combines both an ''Ulfberht'' and an ''in nomine domini'' (in this case, ''+IINIOMINEDMN'') inscription.
Many blade inscriptions of the later 12th and 13th century are even more indecipherable, bearing no resemblance to the ''in nomine domini'' phrase, sometimes resembling random strings of letters, such as
''ERTISSDXCNERTISSDX'',
''+NDXOXCHWDRGHDXORVI+'',''+IHININIhVILPIDHINIhVILPN+'' (
Pernik sword).
[ Pernik sword, Friedrich E. Grünzweig: "Ein Schwert mit Inschrift aus Pernik (Bulgarien)", ''Amsterdamer Beiträge zur älteren Germanistik'' 61 (2006).]
A typology of 8th to 13th century sword blade inscriptions was presented by Geibig (1991).
See also
*
Types of swords
This is a list of types of swords.
The term sword used here is a narrow definition. This is not a general List of premodern combat weapons and does not include the machete or similar "sword-like" weapons.
African swords North African swords ...
*
Oakeshott typology
The Oakeshott typology is a way to define and catalogue the medieval sword based on physical form. It categorises the swords of the European Middle Ages (roughly 11th to 16th centuries) into 13 main types, labelled X through XXII. The historian an ...
*
Imperial Sword
The Imperial Sword ( la, Gladius Imperatoria, german: Reichsschwert) is one of the four most important parts of the Imperial Regalia (''Reichskleinodien'') of the Holy Roman Empire. During a coronation, it was given to the emperor along with the ...
*
Lobera (sword)
The sword Lobera ( es, la espada lobera, literally: "the wolf-slaying sword") was the symbol of power used by Saint Ferdinand III of Castile, instead of the more traditional rod, and so the king will be depicted with orb and sword in hand.
Histo ...
*
Szczerbiec
*
Norman sword
The spatha was a type of straight and long sword, measuring between 0.5 and 1 m (19.7 and 39.4 in), with a handle length of between 18 and 20 cm (7.1 and 7.9 in), in use in the territory of the Roman Empire during the 1st to 6th centuries A ...
*
Longsword
A longsword (also spelled as long sword or long-sword) is a type of European sword characterized as having a cruciform hilt with a grip for primarily two-handed use (around ), a straight double-edged blade of around , and weighing approximatel ...
Notes
References
*Oakeshott, Ewart (1964), ''The Sword in the Age of Chivalry''.
*
*
*Geibig, A. (1991), ''Beiträge zur morphologischen Entwicklung des Schwertes im Mittelalter''.
*North, Anthony (1994), "Swords and Hilt Weapons" in: Anne Cope (ed.), ''Swords and Hilt Weapons''.
*Peirce, Ian (1990), "The Development of the Medieval Sword ''c.''850–1300", in Christopher Harper-Bill, Ruth Harvey (eds.), ''The Ideals and Practice of Medieval Knighthood III: Papers from the Fourth Strawberry Hill Conference, 1988'', Boydell & Brewer Ltd, pp. 139–158.
*Schulze-Dörrlamm (1995). ''Das Reichsschwert: Ein Herrschaftszeichen des Saliers Heinrich IV. und des Welfen Otto IV.'' Jan Thorbecke Verlag Sigmaringen.
*Seitz, H. (1967). ''Blankwaffen 1''. Braunschweig: Klinkhardt and Biermann.
{{Use dmy dates, date=June 2017
Medieval European swords
ru:Романский меч