In 1814, the Kingdom of Norway made a brief and ultimately unsuccessful attempt to regain its independence. While Norway had always legally been a separate kingdom, since the 16th century it had shared a monarch with Denmark; Norway was a subordinate partner in the
combined state, whose government was based in
Copenhagen
Copenhagen ( or .; da, København ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark, with a proper population of around 815.000 in the last quarter of 2022; and some 1.370,000 in the urban area; and the wider Copenhagen metropolitan ar ...
. Due to its alliance with France during the
Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major global conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European states formed into various coalitions. It produced a period of Fren ...
, Denmark was forced to sign the
Treaty of Kiel
The Treaty of Kiel ( da, Kieltraktaten) or Peace of Kiel (Swedish and no, Kielfreden or ') was concluded between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Kingdom of Sweden on one side and the Kingdoms of Denmark and Norway on the ...
in January 1814 ceding Norway to
Sweden
Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...
.
However, many Norwegians were inspired by the rising tide of
nationalism
Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the State (polity), state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a in-group and out-group, group of peo ...
and resented being handed over without their consent to Sweden, a state they viewed as a traditional rival. Under the leadership of
Christian Frederick
Christian VIII (18 September 1786 – 20 January 1848) was King of Denmark from 1839 to 1848 and, as Christian Frederick, King of Norway in 1814.
Christian Frederick was the eldest son of Hereditary Prince Frederick, a younger son of King Frederic ...
, who was the Danish government's representative in Norway and also the king of Denmark's cousin and
heir presumptive
An heir presumptive is the person entitled to inherit a throne, peerage, or other hereditary honour, but whose position can be displaced by the birth of an heir apparent or a new heir presumptive with a better claim to the position in question.
...
, Norway attempted to assert its rights as an independent state. A government was established and a
constitution
A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of Legal entity, entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed.
When ...
written, under which Christian Frederick was elected king of Norway in May 1814.
The fledgeling Norwegian state was unable to gain support or recognition from any foreign powers, and was defeated in a two-week
war with Sweden in the summer of 1814. However, the
Convention of Moss
The Convention of Moss (''Mossekonvensjonen'') was a ceasefire agreement signed on 14 August 1814 between the King of Sweden and the Norwegian government. It followed the Swedish-Norwegian War due to Norway's claim to sovereignty. It also becam ...
, signed at the end of the war in August, preserved many of the independence movement's achievements: Norway remained mostly autonomous in a
personal union
A personal union is the combination of two or more states that have the same monarch while their boundaries, laws, and interests remain distinct. A real union, by contrast, would involve the constituent states being to some extent interlink ...
with Sweden, and was permitted to retain its new constitution with only slight modifications. Christian Frederick, forced to abdicate as king of Norway, would become king of Denmark as Christian VIII in 1839. Norway would eventually
fully break away from Sweden in 1905.
Prior to 1814 – The independence movement
Denmark–Norway
Denmark–Norway (Danish and Norwegian: ) was an early modern multi-national and multi-lingual real unionFeldbæk 1998:11 consisting of the Kingdom of Denmark, the Kingdom of Norway (including the then Norwegian overseas possessions: the Faroe I ...
was involved as a part of the
French side in the
Napoleonic War
The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major global conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European states formed into various coalitions. It produced a period of Fren ...
through its participation in the
Gunboat War
The Gunboat War (, ; 1807–1814) was a naval conflict between Denmark–Norway and the British during the Napoleonic Wars. The war's name is derived from the Danish tactic of employing small gunboats against the materially superior Royal Nav ...
. After Denmark-Norway lost
its fleet, the shores remained defenceless by sea as the tides turned against France. The
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against F ...
had blockaded all Norwegian ports effectively from 1808, thus severing all Dano-Norwegian connections and leaving the nation of Norway to handle diplomacy by itself. Under those conditions, tension grew in Norway, and a fledgling independence movement was formed in 1809, but with roots as far back as at least the 1790s.
In the
Swedish campaign against Norway in 1808–09, Sweden had been repulsed by the Norwegian army, and this was also a factor which made Norwegians more prone to independence.
The years of 1812 and 1813 were known for severe
famine
A famine is a widespread scarcity of food, caused by several factors including war, natural disasters, crop failure, Demographic trap, population imbalance, widespread poverty, an Financial crisis, economic catastrophe or government policies. Th ...
due to the blockade, and this also made Norwegians more negative to the union with Denmark.
Treaty of Kiel
On 7 January 1814, under the command of the elected crown prince of Sweden,
Charles John,
Frederick VI of Denmark
Frederick VI (Danish and no, Frederik; 28 January 17683 December 1839) was King of Denmark
The monarchy of Denmark is a constitutional political system, institution and a historic office of the Kingdom of Denmark. The Kingdom includes ...
proposed to cede The Kingdom of Norway to the king of Sweden in order to avoid an occupation of
Jutland
Jutland ( da, Jylland ; german: Jütland ; ang, Ēota land ), known anciently as the Cimbric or Cimbrian Peninsula ( la, Cimbricus Chersonesus; da, den Kimbriske Halvø, links=no or ; german: Kimbrische Halbinsel, links=no), is a peninsula of ...
. He authorized his envoy
Edmund Bourke to negotiate a peace treaty with
Sweden
Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...
and
Great Britain
Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the largest European island and the ninth-largest island in the world. It is ...
on these terms, in return for immediate withdrawal of all Coalition troops from Danish territory and certain territorial compensations. In addition, he was to join the allied powers in their fight against
Napoleon
Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
. These terms were formalized and signed at the
Treaty of Kiel
The Treaty of Kiel ( da, Kieltraktaten) or Peace of Kiel (Swedish and no, Kielfreden or ') was concluded between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Kingdom of Sweden on one side and the Kingdoms of Denmark and Norway on the ...
on 14 January, in which Denmark negotiated to maintain sovereignty over the Norwegian possessions of
Greenland
Greenland ( kl, Kalaallit Nunaat, ; da, Grønland, ) is an island country in North America that is part of the Kingdom of Denmark. It is located between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Greenland is t ...
, the
Faroe Islands
The Faroe Islands ( ), or simply the Faroes ( fo, Føroyar ; da, Færøerne ), are a North Atlantic island group and an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark.
They are located north-northwest of Scotland, and about halfway bet ...
, and
Iceland
Iceland ( is, Ísland; ) is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean and in the Arctic Ocean. Iceland is the most sparsely populated country in Europe. Iceland's capital and largest city is Reykjavík, which (along with its s ...
. Secret correspondence from the
British government
ga, Rialtas a Shoilse gd, Riaghaltas a Mhòrachd
, image = HM Government logo.svg
, image_size = 220px
, image2 = Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom (HM Government).svg
, image_size2 = 180px
, caption = Royal Arms
, date_es ...
in the preceding days had put diplomatic pressure on the negotiating parties to reach an agreement in order to avoid a full-scale invasion of Denmark. Bernadotte sent a letter to the governments of
Prussia
Prussia, , Old Prussian: ''Prūsa'' or ''Prūsija'' was a German state on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. It formed the German Empire under Prussian rule when it united the German states in 1871. It was ''de facto'' dissolved by an em ...
,
Austria
Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous ...
, and Great Britain thanking them for their support, acknowledging the role of
Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...
in negotiating the peace, and envisaging greater stability in the Nordic region.
These news did not reach Norway until the end of January, in a letter of 18 January from the Danish king to the Norwegian people, in which he released them from their oath of allegiance to him and his dynasty. By special courier, a secret letter of 17 January from the king was delivered on 24 January to his cousin and
viceroy of Norway
The Viceroy of Norway ( Constitutional Danish: Vice-Konge) was the appointed head of the Norwegian Government in the absence of the King, during the era of the Union between Sweden and Norway. The role was essentially the same as that of the Gover ...
,
Prince Christian Frederick with the most important details of the treaty, which the Prince decided to keep to himself while considering his reaction. The letter instructed him to deliver the Norwegian fortresses to Swedish forces and then return to Denmark.
The public were informed of the peace treaty on 26 January through a censored article in the newspaper ''Tiden'', under the headline. "Peace, Peace in the North!" It did not inform the public of the fact that the king had ceded his kingdom to the king of Sweden, historically the enemy of Norway. As there was the annual February market in
Christiania at the same time, a local priest observed that the entire marketplace swirled with rumours of the treaty, and with tension. As news spread, it was apparent to many Norwegian intellectuals that the people were offended by the treaty, by being delivered like cattle to a foreign sovereign.
Attempted reclamation by Christian Frederick
The viceroy and heir to the thrones of Denmark and Norway, Prince Christian Frederick, resolved to disobey the instructions from his king and to take the lead in an insurrection to preserve the integrity of the country, and if possible the union with Denmark. The king had been informed of these plans in a secret letter of December 1813. The Prince had also been instructed to keep the union with Denmark intact, but this was not in accord with Norwegian wishes at the time. In Norway, the sentiment was that Norway had been "sold out" to Sweden, their sworn arch-enemy.
Financial problems forced the Prince on 27 January to order banknotes to the amount of 3 million Rigsbankdaler to be issued by "The Provisional Rigsbank of Norway", stamped with the Norwegian coat of arms, to be redeemed by the Rigsbank. These so-called "Prince notes" were necessary to keep the wheels of government turning, but they contributed to the already chaotic monetary situation and the galloping inflation. The cause of the financial crisis was the refusal of King Frederick VI to establish a Bank of Norway.
Christian Frederick claimed the throne of Norway and to set up an independent government with himself at the head. The week prior to 30 January, the prince toured parts of Norway and found the same real or false willingness to fight everywhere he came. On 30 January he consulted several prominent Norwegian advisors. His position stated that King Frederick had no legal right to relinquish his inheritance, asserting that he was the rightful king of Norway and that Norway had a right to self-determination. His impromptu council agreed with him, setting the stage for an independence movement. After this day, the tour continued, all the way to
Trondheim
Trondheim ( , , ; sma, Tråante), historically Kaupangen, Nidaros and Trondhjem (), is a city and municipality in Trøndelag county, Norway. As of 2020, it had a population of 205,332, was the third most populous municipality in Norway, and ...
and back.
On 2 February the Norwegian public learned that their country was ceded to the king of Sweden.
On 8 February Bernadotte responded by threatening to send an army to occupy Norway, promising a constitutional convention, and threatening a continued grain embargo against Norway if Sweden's claims under the treaty of Kiel were not met. But for the time being, he was occupied with the concluding battles on the Continent, giving the Norwegians time to develop their plans.
The independence movement solidifies and is threatened by war
![Det første norske flagget i 1814](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Det_f%C3%B8rste_norske_flagget_i_1814.PNG)
On 10 February Christian Frederick invited prominent Norwegians to a meeting to be held at his friend
Carsten Anker
Carsten Tank Anker (17 November 1747 – 13 March 1824) was a Norwegian businessman, civil servant, politician and one of the Fathers of the Constitution of Norway. He was the owner of the manor house in Akershus at which the original National As ...
's estate in Eidsvoll to discuss the situation. He informed them of his intent to resist Swedish hegemony and claim the Norwegian crown as his inheritance. But at the emotional session in Eidsvoll on 16 February, his advisors convinced him that Norway's claim to independence should rather be based on the principle of self-determination and that he should act as a regent for the time being. The council also advised the regent to hold elections and oaths of independence all over the country, thus choosing delegates to a constitutional assembly.
Arriving in
Christiania (Oslo) on 19 February, Christian Frederick proclaimed himself regent of Norway. All congregations met on 25 February to swear loyalty to the cause of Norwegian independence and to elect delegates to a constitutional assembly to commence at Eidsvoll on 10 April.
On 20 February the Swedish government sent a mission to Christian Frederick, warning him that Norway's independence movement was a violation of the treaty of Kiel and put Norway at war with the victorious parties in the Napoleonic War. The consequences would be famine and bankruptcy. Christian Frederick sent letters through his personal network to governments throughout Europe, assuring them that he was not leading a Danish conspiracy to reverse the terms of the treaty of Kiel, but rather his efforts reflected the Norwegian will for self-determination. He also sought a secret accommodation with
Napoleon I
Napoleon Bonaparte ; it, Napoleone Bonaparte, ; co, Napulione Buonaparte. (born Napoleone Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French military commander and political leader who ...
.
The mission from the Swedish government arrived in Christiania on 24 February and met with Christian Frederick. Christian Frederick refused to accept a proclamation from the Swedish king but insisted instead on reading his letter to the Norwegian people, proclaiming himself regent. The Swedish delegation characterized his decisions as reckless and illegal, asking for leave to return to Sweden. The day after, church bells in Christiania rang for a full hour, and the city's citizens convened to swear fealty to Christian Frederick. On 26 February he initiated a long correspondence with the Swedish government. The next day he introduced a new flag for independent Norway — the former Dano-Norwegian
Dannebrog
Dannebrog (until the mid-20th century often spelled Danebrog) may refer to:
Flags and orders
* The national Flag of Denmark
* Order of the Dannebrog ( da, Dannebrogordenen, links=no), a Royal Danish decoration
Places
* Dannebrog Island, an i ...
with the Norwegian Lion in the canton.
25 February is remembered in some sources as "people´s day" because of the elections and the oath. That day showed forth a de facto declaration of independence for Norway. All sources remembering that day agrees on the sacred tone of the day when all people assembled in their churches for a common cause. Bells rang from 10 am, chiming for a full hour. 4,000 people assembled in the central church of
Christiania. At 11 am the regent arrived, and a service was held. Then the bishop intoned the oath: "Do you swear to claim the independence of Norway, and to dare life and blood for the beloved fatherland?" Both the regent and the congregation answered accordingly. This oath was taken in maybe 75 churches that day, and again over the country the next Sunday, and further until the oath was taken in all the congregations of Norway.
Carsten Anker was sent to
London
London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a majo ...
to negotiate recognition by the British government. Swedish authorities were canvassing border areas with pamphlets subverting the independence movement. By early March, Christian Frederick had also organized a cabinet and five government departments, though he retained all decision-making authority himself.
Christian Frederick meets increasing opposition from within and abroad
The
Count of Wedel-Jarlsberg, the most prominent member of the
Norwegian nobility
Aristocracy of Norway refers to modern and medieval aristocracy in Norway. Additionally, there have been economical, political, and military elites thatrelating to the main lines of Norway's historyare generally accepted as nominal predecessor ...
, arrived in Norway on 3 March and confronted the regent, accusing him of playing a dangerous game. Christian Frederick responded by accusing Wedel-Jarlsberg of colluding with the Swedes. Returns from elections for delegates to the constitutional assembly also showed there were widespread misgivings about the independence movement. By the end of March, the opinion was openly expressed that Christian Frederick's ambition was to bring Norway back under Danish sovereignty.
Before Carsten Anker arrived in the United Kingdom, the British foreign secretary
Robert Stewart, reimposed the naval blockade of Norway and assured the Swedish king that the British would refrain from accepting any Norwegian claims of sovereignty. A conciliatory letter sent by Christian Frederick to the Swedish king was returned unopened. On 9 March the Swedish mission to
Copenhagen
Copenhagen ( or .; da, København ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark, with a proper population of around 815.000 in the last quarter of 2022; and some 1.370,000 in the urban area; and the wider Copenhagen metropolitan ar ...
demanded that Christian Frederick be disinherited from succession to the Danish throne and that European powers should go to war with Denmark unless he disassociated himself from the Norwegian independence movement. On 17 March
Niels Rosenkrantz
Niels Rosenkrantz (9 September 1757 in Øyestad, Norway - 6 January 1824 in Copenhagen) was a Danish-Norwegian statesman, diplomat and prime minister. He was the son of Otto Christian Rosenkrantz and Karen Johanne Rønning.
After a short time ...
, the Danish foreign minister, responded to the Swedish demands by asserting that the Danish government in no way supported Norwegian independence, but that they could not vacate border posts they did not hold. The demand for disinheriting Christian Frederick was not addressed.
In several letters to Count
Hans Henrik von Essen
Count Hans Henric von Essen (26 September 1755 – 28 June 1824) was a Swedish officer, courtier and statesman.
Biography
Hans Henric von Essen was born at Kavlås Castle in Tidaholm Municipality, Västra Götaland County, Sweden. He was a ...
, the commander of the Swedish military forces at Norway's borders, Bernadotte referred to Christian Frederick as a rebel who had probably been misled by the Danish nobility. He ordered his forces to treat all Danish officials who did not return home as outlaws, and all users of the "prince dollars" to be considered counterfeiters. Swedish troops amassed along the border to Norway, and there were daily rumours of an invasion.
In spite of his open opposition to Christian Frederick, Wedel-Jarlsberg was elected as a delegate to the constitutional convention on 14 March. There were clear signs that the convention, only weeks away, would be contentious.
Carsten Anker arrived in London on 24 March, where he met with an under-secretary of foreign affairs. The under-secretary rejected Anker's appeal for self-determination, and Anker found all other doors closed to him in London. On 2 April Christian Frederick sent Carsten Anker's brother Peter (1744–1832) to London as an unofficial emissary. On 3 April Carsten Anker was imprisoned for three days in debtors' prison on account of an old debt, probably at the behest of the Swedish ambassador to London.
On 31 March Christian Frederick arrested officers of the naval vessels stationed in Norway as they were preparing to follow orders to bring the ships to Denmark. The ships were confiscated as ships of the Norwegian navy.
On 1 April Frederick VI sent a letter to Christian Frederick, asking him to give up his efforts and return to Denmark. The possibility of disinheriting the crown prince was mentioned in the letter. Christian Frederick rejected the overture, in the same letter invoking Norway's right to self-determination and the possibility of keeping Norway under the Danish king. A few days later, Christian Frederick warned off a meeting with the Danish foreign minister Niels Rosenkrantz, pointing out that such a meeting would fuel speculation that the prince was motivated by Danish designs on Norway.
Constituent Assembly
![Eidsvoll riksraad 1814](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Eidsvoll_riksraad_1814.jpeg)
Although the European powers refused to acknowledge the Norwegian independence movement, there were signs by early April that they were not inclined to support Sweden in an all-out confrontation on the matter.
As time approaches for the constitutional convention, there was growing support for opposition to the treaty of Kiel, especially from
Bergen
Bergen (), historically Bjørgvin, is a city and municipality in Vestland county on the west coast of Norway. , its population is roughly 285,900. Bergen is the second-largest city in Norway. The municipality covers and is on the peninsula of ...
.
On 10 April the constitutional convention convened for the first time, at church services in Eidsvoll. The sermon caused some stir by flattering Christian Frederick in particular and the monarchy in general. The delegates were accredited that afternoon, after
Severin Løvenskiold
Severin Løvenskiold (7 February 1777 – 15 September 1856) was a Norwegian nobleman, politician and the prime minister of Norway.
Family
Severin Løvenskiold, the younger, was born in Porsgrunn in Telemark, Norway to Severin Løvenskiold, t ...
had refused to give fealty to the independence movement.
Seated on uncomfortable benches, the convention elected its officers in the presence of Christian Frederick on 11 April. The debates started on 12 April, when
Nicolai Wergeland
Nicolai Wergeland (9 November 1780 – 25 March 1848) was a Norwegian minister, writer and politician, and a member of the Norwegian Constituent Assembly at Eidsvoll that wrote the Constitution of Norway on 17 May 1814. He was elected as one of ...
and
Georg Sverdrup
Georg Sverdrup (born Jørgen Sverdrup; 25 April 1770 – 8 December 1850) was a Norwegian statesman, best known as one of the presidents of the Norwegian Constituent Assembly in Eidsvoll in 1814. He was a member of the Norwegian Parliament and ...
argued over the mandate of the assembly and the basis for the regent's legitimacy. Party lines took form, with the "Independence party," variously known as the "Danish party," "the Prince's party," or "the urgent" on one side of the aisle; and the "Union Party," also known as the "western party," "Swedish party," or "the hesitant" on the other.
As it turned out, there was a clear consensus among all delegates that independence would be the ideal solution, but there was disagreement on what solution was workable given real-world constraints.
* The Independence party had the majority and argued that the mandate of the convention was limited to formalizing Norway's independence based on the popular oath of fealty from earlier that year. With Christian Frederick as the regent, the relationship with Denmark would be negotiated within the context of Norwegian independence.
* The Union party, a minority of the delegates, believed that Norway would achieve a more independent status within a loose union with Sweden than as part of the Danish monarchy and that the assembly should continue its work even after the constitution was complete.
A constitutional committee presented its proposals on 16 April, provoking a lively debate. The Independence party won the day with a majority of 78–33 to establish Norway as an independent monarchy. There was also lively debate on the issue of military conscription, in which the upper classes argued for exemption. In the following days, mutual suspicion and distrust came to the surface within the convention. In particular, delegates disagreed on whether to give the sentiments of the European powers consideration, and some facts may have been withheld from the convention.
By 20 April the principle of the people's right to self-determination articulated by
Christian Magnus Falsen
Christian Magnus Falsen (14 September 1782 – 13 January 1830) was a Norwegian constitutional father, statesman, jurist, and historian. He was an important member of the Norwegian Constituent Assembly and was one of the writers of the Consti ...
and
Gunder Adler had been established as foundational for the framing of the constitution. Continued work and debate was characterized by acrimony and recrimination, but the constitutional committee made steady progress.
Framing the constitution
![Christian Magnus Falsen EM](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Christian_Magnus_Falsen_EM.01457_crop.jpg)
On 1 May the first draft of the constitution was signed by the drafting committee. In addition to the principle of the Norwegian people's right to self-determination, the constitution's key precepts included the assurance of individual freedom, the right to property, and equality.
Following a contentious debate on 4 May, the assembly decided that Norway would profess itself to the
Lutheran-Evangelical faith, that its monarch must always have professed himself to this faith (thereby precluding the Catholic-born Bernadotte from being a king), and that
Jew
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""Th ...
s and
Jesuit
, image = Ihs-logo.svg
, image_size = 175px
, caption = ChristogramOfficial seal of the Jesuits
, abbreviation = SJ
, nickname = Jesuits
, formation =
, founders ...
s would be barred from entering the kingdom (see ''
Jew clause
The Jew clause ( no, Jødeparagrafen) is in the vernacular name of the second paragraph of the Constitution of Norway from 1814 to 1851 and from 1942 to 1945. The clause, in its original form, banned Jews from entering Norway, and also forbade ...
'' and ''
Jesuit clause
The Jesuit clause (Norwegian: ) was a provision in the Constitution of Norway, paragraph 2, in force from 1814 to 1956, that denied Jesuits entry into the country. Until 1897, this provision was combined with a ban on monastic orders, and until ...
'').
On 5 May the Independence party lost another battle when the assembly voted 98 to 11 to allow the kingdom's monarch to reign over another country with the assent of two-thirds of the legislative assembly's vote.
On 7 May the assembly outlawed the creation of new nobility in Norway, allowing the disposition of existing hereditary rights to be decided by a future legislative body. On 8 May, proposed laws concerning naturalization and suffrage were debated. On the next day, it was decided that foreign citizens would be eligible after ten years of residency and that the right to vote would be extended to men who were either farmers possessing their own land, civil servants, or urban property owners. With this, about half of all Norwegian men earned the right to vote, a radical proposition at the time.
On 8 May the assembly decided on a
bicameral
Bicameralism is a type of legislature, one divided into two separate assemblies, chambers, or houses, known as a bicameral legislature. Bicameralism is distinguished from unicameralism, in which all members deliberate and vote as a single grou ...
legislative body to be known as the
Storting
The Storting ( no, Stortinget ) (lit. the Great Thing) is the supreme legislature of Norway, established in 1814 by the Constitution of Norway. It is located in Oslo. The unicameral parliament has 169 members and is elected every four years bas ...
, with the expectation that one would be an upper house (
Lagting), and a lower house (
Odelsting
The Storting ( no, Stortinget ) (lit. the Great Thing) is the supreme legislature of Norway, established in 1814 by the Constitution of Norway. It is located in Oslo. The unicameral parliament has 169 members and is elected every four years bas ...
). They also vested the right to establish and collect taxes in the legislative body. The assembly also passed the so-called "farmer's paragraph" stipulating that two-thirds of the Storting had to be elected from rural districts, and one-third from urban areas. (This paragraph remained in force until 1952).
On 11 May the assembly overwhelmingly passed universal conscription, over the objections of the financial and administrative elite, who threatened mass emigration if their sons were forced into military service.
On 13 May, after two days of debate, the assembly passed a law in which the assembly guaranteed the issue of a Norwegian currency. The Union party opposed this, claiming that there simply wasn't an economic basis for an independent currency. The Independence party, carrying the day, responded that an independent currency was necessary to ensure the existence of an independent state, regardless of the financial considerations. Nevertheless, on the next day, the assembly decided to postpone the establishment of a central bank until a legislative body was in session. Christian Frederick was dismayed by this decision.
The final edit of the
constitution
A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of Legal entity, entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed.
When ...
was approved on 16 May. The official copy was dated, signed and sealed by the presidency on 17 May, and signed by the other representatives on 18 May. 17 May is accordingly considered
Constitution Day
Constitution Day is a holiday to honour the constitution of a country. Constitution Day is often celebrated on the anniversary of the signing, promulgation or adoption of the constitution, or in some cases, to commemorate the change to constitut ...
in Norway. On that same day, Christian Frederick was elected king of Norway. The election was unanimous, but several of the delegates put on the record that they would have preferred to see it postponed until the political situation had stabilized.
After the election, Georg Sverdrup, then president of the assembly, held a short speech:
''Raised is then once more within the boundaries of Norway the ancient throne which was occupied by Haakon the Good
Haakon Haraldsson (c. 920–961), also Haakon the Good (Old Norse: ''Hákon góði'', Norwegian: ''Håkon den gode'') and Haakon Adalsteinfostre (Old Norse: ''Hákon Aðalsteinsfóstri'', Norwegian: ''Håkon Adalsteinsfostre''), was the king of ...
and Sverre, from which they ruled old Norway with wisdom and strength. That the wisdom and power exercised by them, the great kings of our ancient past, also will inspire the Prince which we, the freemen of Norway, in accordance with the wish of all the people, in gratitude and appreciation today unanimously have chosen, is a wish that every true son of Norway surely shares with me. God save old Norway!''
The last sentence was then repeated by all those present.
On 20 May the assembly adjourned, joining hands and proclaiming that they would remain "United and loyal until the mountains of
Dovre
Dovre is a municipality in Innlandet county, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Gudbrandsdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Dovre. Other villages in Dovre include Dombås and Hjerkinn. The ...
crumble!"
Seeking domestic and international legitimacy
![CarlXIVJohnSweden](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/CarlXIVJohnSweden.jpg)
On 22 May the newly elected king made a triumphant entrance into Christiania, exactly one year after he first arrived as viceroy to Norway. The cannons at
Akershus Fortress
Akershus Fortress ( no, Akershus Festning, ) or Akershus Castle ( no, Akershus slott ) is a medieval castle in the Norwegian capital Oslo that was built to protect and provide a royal residence for the city. Since the Middle Ages the fortress h ...
sounded off the royal salute, and a celebratory service was held in the cathedral. There was continuing concern about the international climate, and on 24 May the government decided to send two of the delegates from the constitutional assembly to join Carsten Anker in the UK to plead Norway's case.
On 25 May the first council of state convened, establishing the nation's supreme court.
On 31 May general major
Johannes Klingenberg Sejersted proposed to take a stand against invading Swedish forces at the river
Glomma
The Glomma, or Glåma, is Norway's longest and most voluminous river. With a total length of , it has a drainage basin that covers fully 13% of Norway's surface area, all in the southern part of the country.
Geography
At its fullest length, the ...
, but some maintained that the Swedes should be stopped at the border.
On 5 June the British emissary
John Philip Morier arrived in Christiania on what appeared to be an unofficial visit. He accepted the hospitality of one of Christian Frederick's ministers and agreed to meet with the king himself informally, stressing that nothing he did should be construed as a recognition of Norwegian independence.
Christian Frederick asked the British government to mediate between Norway and Sweden, but Morier never deviated from his government's prior rejection of refusing to recognize an independent Norway. Morier offered to bring the Norwegian emissaries
Niels Aall
Niels Aall (1 December 1769 – 23 October 1854) was a Norwegian estate owner, businessman and politician.
Family
Niels Aall was the son of lumber merchant Nicolai Benjamin Aall (1739–98) from Porsgrunn and his wife Amjørg Jørgensdatter ...
and
Wilhelm Christie
Wilhelm may refer to:
People and fictional characters
* William Charles John Pitcher, costume designer known professionally as "Wilhelm"
* Wilhelm (name), a list of people and fictional characters with the given name or surname
Other uses
* Moun ...
to Britain onboard his ship, but ended up failing to follow through on his promise. He informed the Norwegians that they could expect no diplomatic support from the British government, and asked that his government's position be printed in all Norwegian newspapers.
On 10 June the Norwegian army was mobilized and arms and ammunitions distributed.
On 13 June Christian Frederick also ordered a census in preparation for parliamentary elections.
On 16 June Carsten Anker sent a letter to Christian Frederick in which he made references to discussions he had recently had with a high-ranking
Prussia
Prussia, , Old Prussian: ''Prūsa'' or ''Prūsija'' was a German state on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. It formed the German Empire under Prussian rule when it united the German states in 1871. It was ''de facto'' dissolved by an em ...
n diplomat. He learned that Prussia and
Austria
Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous ...
were waning in their support of Sweden's claims to Norway, that
Alexander I of Russia
Alexander I (; – ) was Emperor of Russia from 1801, the first King of Congress Poland from 1815, and the Grand Duke of Finland from 1809 to his death. He was the eldest son of Emperor Paul I and Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg.
The son of ...
(a distant cousin of Christian Frederick's) favoured a Swedish-Norwegian union but not with Bernadotte as the king, and that the United Kingdom was looking for a solution to the problem that would keep Norway out of Russia's influence.
Prelude to war
On 26 June emissaries from Russia, Prussia, Austria, and the United Kingdom arrived in
Vänersborg
Vänersborg () is a locality and the seat of Vänersborg Municipality, Västra Götaland County, Sweden with 23,882 inhabitants (out of a municipal total of 39,591) Until 1997 it was the capital of Älvsborg County, which was dissolved in 1998. Sin ...
in Sweden to convince Christian Frederick to comply with the provisions of the treaty of Kiel. There they conferred with von Essen, who told them that 65,000 Swedish troops were ready to invade Norway. On 30 June the emissaries arrived in Christiania, where they rudely turned down Christian Frederick's hospitality. Meeting with the Norwegian council of state the following day, the Russian emissary Orlow put the choice to those present: Norway could subject itself to the Swedish crown or face war with the rest of Europe. When Christian Frederik argued that the Norwegian people had a right to determine their own destiny, the Austrian emissary made the famous comment:
:The people? What do they have to say against the will of its rulers? That would be to put the world on its head.
In the course of the negotiations, Christian Frederick offered to relinquish the throne and return to Denmark, provided the Norwegians had a say in their future through an extraordinary session in the Storting. But he refused to surrender the Norwegian border forts to Swedish troops. On 15 July the four-power delegation rejected Christian Frederick's proposal that Norway's constitution form the basis for negotiations about a
union
Union commonly refers to:
* Trade union, an organization of workers
* Union (set theory), in mathematics, a fundamental operation on sets
Union may also refer to:
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Music
* Union (band), an American rock group
** ''Un ...
with Sweden but promised to put the proposal to the Swedish king for consideration. The negotiations were a partial success in that the delegation left convinced that Christian Frederick was sincere and had the backing of a popular movement.
On 20 July Bernadotte sent a letter to his "cousin" Christian Frederick accusing him of intrigues and foolhardy adventurism. To add to the problems, the three Norwegians who had made their way to London were arrested, charged with carrying false passports and papers. They were deported immediately.
On 22 July Bernadotte met with the delegation that had been in Norway. They encouraged him to consider Christian Frederick's proposed terms for a union with Sweden, but the crown prince was outraged. He reiterated his ultimatum that Christian Frederick either relinquish all rights to the throne and abandon the border posts or face war. On 27 July a Swedish naval fleet took over
Hvaler
Hvaler is a municipality that is a group of islands in the southern part of Viken County, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Skjærhalden, on the island of Kirkeøy. The only police station in the municipali ...
, effectively putting Sweden at war with Norway. The day after, Christian Frederick rejected the Swedish ultimatum, saying that such a surrender would constitute treason against the Norwegian people. On 29 July Swedish forces moved to invade Norway.
Swedish-Norwegian War
Swedish forces met with little resistance as they advanced northward into Norway, bypassing the fortress of
Fredriksten
Fredriksten is a fortress in the city of Halden in Norway.
History
This Fortresses was constructed by Denmark-Norway in the 17th century as a replacement for the border fortress at Bohus, which had been lost when the province of Bohuslän was ...
. The first hostilities were short and ended with decisive victories for Sweden. By 4 August the fortified city of
Fredrikstad
Fredrikstad (; previously ''Frederiksstad''; literally "Fredrik's Town") is a city and municipality in Viken county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the city of Fredrikstad.
The city of Fredrikstad was founded in 15 ...
surrendered. Christian Frederick ordered a retreat to the river
Glomma
The Glomma, or Glåma, is Norway's longest and most voluminous river. With a total length of , it has a drainage basin that covers fully 13% of Norway's surface area, all in the southern part of the country.
Geography
At its fullest length, the ...
. The Swedish Army, trying to intercept the retreat, was stopped at the
battle of Langnes, an important tactical victory by the Norwegians. The Swedish assaults from the east were effectively resisted near
Kongsvinger
Kongsvinger () is a municipality in Innlandet county, Norway. It is located in the traditional district of Glåmdal. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Kongsvinger. Other settlements in the municipality include Aust ...
.
On 3 August Christian Frederick announced his political will in a cabinet meeting in
Moss
Mosses are small, non-vascular flowerless plants in the taxonomic division Bryophyta (, ) '' sensu stricto''. Bryophyta (''sensu lato'', Schimp. 1879) may also refer to the parent group bryophytes, which comprise liverworts, mosses, and hor ...
. On 7 August a delegation from Bernadotte arrived at the Norwegian military headquarters in
Spydeberg
Spydeberg was a municipality in former Østfold county, Norway, until December 31. 2019. At January 1. 2020 it became a part of the new and greater municipality named " Indre Østfold Kommune" after the region, together with Askim and Trøgstad a ...
with a cease-fire offer that would join Norway in a union with Sweden and respect the Norwegian constitution. The day after, Christian Frederick expressed himself in favor of the terms, allowing Swedish troops to remain in positions east of Glomma. Hostilities broke out at Glomma, resulting in casualties, but the Norwegian forces were ordered to retreat. Peace negotiations with Swedish envoys began in the town of Moss on 10 August. On 14 August the negotiations concluded. The
Convention of Moss
The Convention of Moss (''Mossekonvensjonen'') was a ceasefire agreement signed on 14 August 1814 between the King of Sweden and the Norwegian government. It followed the Swedish-Norwegian War due to Norway's claim to sovereignty. It also becam ...
resulted in a general cease-fire based on terms that effectively were terms of peace.
Christian Frederick succeeded in excluding from the text any indication that Norway had recognized the Treaty of Kiel, and Sweden accepted that it was not to be considered a premise of the future union between the two states. Understanding the advantage of avoiding a costly war, and of letting Norway enter into a union voluntarily instead of being annexed as a conquered territory, something that, historically, the Swedes had never managed to do, Bernadotte offered favourable peace terms. He promised to recognize the Norwegian Constitution, with only those amendments that were necessary to open up for a union of the two countries. Christian Frederick agreed to call an extraordinary session of the Storting in September or October. He would then have to transfer his powers to the elected representatives of the people, who would negotiate the terms of the union with Sweden, and finally relinquish all claims to the Norwegian throne and leave the country.
Ceasefire
The news hit the Norwegian public hard, and reactions included anger at the "cowardice" and "treason" of the military commanders, despair over the prospects of Norwegian independence, and confusion about the country's options. Christian Frederick confirmed his willingness to abdicate the throne for "reasons of health," leaving his authority with the
state council State Council may refer to:
Government
* State Council of the Republic of Korea, the national cabinet of South Korea, headed by the President
* State Council of the People's Republic of China, the national cabinet and chief administrative auth ...
as agreed in a secret protocol at Moss. In a letter dated 28 August, Christian Frederick ordered the council to accept orders from the "highest authority," clearly referring to the Swedish king. Two days later, the Swedish king proclaimed himself the ruler of both Sweden and Norway.
On 3 September the British government announced that their naval blockade of Norway would be lifted. Postal service between Norway and Sweden was resumed. By 8 September prominent Norwegians were taking note of the generous terms offered by Bernadotte. The Swedish general in the occupied border regions of Norway,
Magnus Fredrik Ferdinand Björnstjerna, threatened to resume hostilities if the Norwegians would not abide by the armistice agreement and willingly accept the union with Sweden. Christian Frederik was reputed to have fallen into a deep depression and was variously blamed for the battleground defeats.
In late September, a dispute arose between Swedish authorities and the Norwegian council of state over the distribution of grain among the poor in Christiania. The grain was intended as a gift from the Swedish king to the Norwegians, but it became a matter of principle for the Norwegian council to avoid the appearance that Norway had a new king until the transition was formalized. Björnstjerna sent several missives threatening to resume hostilities.
On 26 September, the Norwegian general in the "northern" region of Norway, Count
Carl Jacob Waldemar von Schmettow, vowed in Norwegian newspapers to forcibly resist any further Swedish troop movements into Norway.
Easing into a new arrangement
In early October, Norwegians again refused to accept a shipment of corn from Bernadotte, and Norwegian merchants instead took up loans to purchase food and other necessities from Denmark. However, by early October, there was emerging support for a union with Sweden. On 7 October an extraordinary session of the
Norwegian parliament
The Storting ( no, Stortinget ) (lit. the Great Thing) is the supreme legislature of Norway, established in 1814 by the Constitution of Norway. It is located in Oslo. The unicameral parliament has 169 members and is elected every four years base ...
convened. Delegates from areas occupied by Sweden in
Østfold
Østfold is a traditional region, a former county and a current electoral district in southeastern Norway. It borders Akershus and southwestern Sweden (Västra Götaland County and Värmland), while Buskerud and Vestfold are on the other side o ...
were admitted only after submitting assurances that they had no loyalty to the Swedish authorities. On 10 October Christian Frederick formally abdicated according to the conditions agreed on at Moss and embarked for Denmark. Executive powers were provisionally assigned to the Storting until the necessary amendments to the Constitution were enacted.
On 20 October, with one day to spare before the cease-fire expired, the Norwegian parliament voted 72 to 5 to join Sweden in a personal union, but a motion to acknowledge
Charles XIII
Charles XIII, or Carl XIII ( sv, Karl XIII, 7 October 1748 – 5 February 1818), was King of Sweden from 1809 and King of Norway from 1814 to his death. He was the second son (and younger brother to King Gustav III) of King Adolf Frederick of Sw ...
as king of Norway failed to pass. The issue was tabled pending the necessary amendments to the Norwegian constitution. In the following days, the parliament passed several resolutions to assert as much sovereignty as possible within the union. On 1 November they voted 52 to 25 that Norway would not appoint its own consuls, a decision that would have serious consequences in 1905. On 4 November the Storting adopted the constitutional amendments that were required to allow for the union, and unanimously ''elected'' Charles XIII as king of Norway, rather than acknowledging him as such.
References
Further reading
*
Frydenlund, Bård (2014): ''Spillet om Norge. Det politiske året 1814.''
* Glenthøj, Rasmus and Morten Nordhagen Ottosen (2014): ''1814 Krig, nederlag, frihet''. Oslo, Spartacus forlag AS.
* Koht, Halvdan (1910): ''Unionsprengningen i 1814 i verdenshistorisk sammenheng. Kristiania, Det norske Samlaget
* Koht, Halvdan (1914): ''1814. Norsk dagbok hundre aar efterpaa''. Kristiania
* Linvald, Axel (1962): ''Christian Frederik og Norge 1814''. Oslo, Universitetsforlaget.
* Nielsen, Yngvar (1905): ''Norge i 1814''. Christiania, J.M. Stenersen & Co.
* Pavels, Claus (1864): ''Claus Pavels biografi og dagbøger 1812-1822/Udgivne i uddrag af Claus Pavels Riis''. Bergen, Floor
* Steen, Sverre (1951): ''1814''. Oslo, J.W. Cappelen
External links
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Norway In 1814
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