Khmer inscriptions are a corpus of post-5th century historical texts engraved on materials such as stone and metal ware found in a wide range of mainland
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...
(
Cambodia
Cambodia (; also Kampuchea ; km, កម្ពុជា, UNGEGN: ), officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochinese Peninsula in Southeast Asia, spanning an area of , bordered by Thailand t ...
,
Vietnam
Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making i ...
,
Thailand
Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is bo ...
and
Laos
Laos (, ''Lāo'' )), officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic ( Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ, French: République démocratique populaire lao), is a socialist ...
) and relating to the Khmer civilization. The study of Khmer inscriptions is known as Khmer
epigraphy
Epigraphy () is the study of inscriptions, or epigraphs, as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the wr ...
.
Khmer inscriptions are the only local written sources for the study of ancient Khmer civilization.
More than 1,200 Khmer inscriptions of varying length have been collected.
There was an 'explosion' of Khmer epigraphy from the seventh century, with the earliest recorded Khmer stone inscription dating from 612 AD at
Angkor Borei
Angkor Borei ( km, អង្គរបូរី, ) is a district located in Takéo Province, in southern Cambodia. According to the 1998 census of Cambodia, it had a population of 44,980.
Administration
The district has 6 communes, 34 villages ( ...
.
Beyond their archeological significance, Khmer inscriptions have become a marker of
national identity.
Language: Sanskrit, old Khmer, and rarely Pali
The languages used on Khmer inscriptions are either ancient Khmer or
sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
while a few have also been found in
pali
Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or ''Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of ''Theravāda'' Buddhism ...
, though the latter are no older than the 14th century. The oldest inscription in Sanskrit is from the 5th century and the oldest one in ancient Khmer is from the 7th century.
Apart from the stele of Phimanakas, there are no bilingual steles in Cambodia properly speaking; the part in ancient Khmer does not translate but sometimes paraphrases the narrative part in sanskrit with more material and technical details.
Inscriptions in Sanskrit
Sanskrit inscriptions, from the 5th to the 14th century, are found all over Cambodia, and they are proof of the flourishing state of Sanskrit learning. These inscriptions exhibit the knowledge of different
metres
The metre (British spelling) or meter (American spelling; see spelling differences) (from the French unit , from the Greek noun , "measure"), symbol m, is the primary unit of length in the International System of Units (SI), though its prefi ...
and the most developed poetic rules and conventions of
rhetoric
Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate parti ...
and
prosody.
Khmer inscriptions are more philosophical than the ''mangala'' of Indian inscriptions. Their language and grammar is also more correct than most Indian inscriptions.
File:Khmer Numerals - 605 from the Sambor inscriptions.jpg
File:First zero 1.jpg
The number of such inscriptions written in ornate ''
kavya'' style is the larger than in any other country in Southeast Asia. Khmer inscriptions in Sanskrit make us of the
Shaka era
The Shaka era (IAST: Śaka, Śāka) is a historical Hindu calendar era (year numbering), the epoch (its year zero) of which corresponds to Julian year 78.
The era has been widely used in different regions of India as well as in SE Asia.
Hist ...
and the
decimal system in number first noticed in the 7th century,
including the
number O.
Sanskrit is used in Khmer inscriptions as the language of the gods, especially for poems and prayers offered in their honour. Their structure is fixed: after an introductory invocation of the divinity, comes the praise of the founder or benefactor of the sanctuary before ending with
imprecatory verses aimed at anyone who would not protect the premises of the temple and wishing them the chastisement of hell.
Useful archeological information is most often found in the central part, which often reveals the name of the ruling king, and the dates of his reign.
Inscriptions in ancient Khmer
Ancient Khmer first appears on inscriptions at the end of the 7th century. Khmer inscriptions written in ancient Khmer are most often in prose and are usually a more or less detailed inventory of the offerings received by a sanctuary. These inscriptions, such as the ''
Grande Inscription d'Angkor
The ''Grande Inscription d’Angkor'', referenced as K. 301 or Inscription Modern Angkor Wat (IMA) #38, is the longest Khmer inscription at Angkor Wat. Dated to 1701, it is located on the east wall between the ''bas-relief'' galleries and faci ...
,'' reveal precious information about the culture of Cambodia. Their content has also been found at least in one instance to match that of the
Royal Chronicles of Cambodia.
It is believed that the population expressed some sort of resistance with regard to the Sanskrit language, which necessitated the use of indigenous language to make known the royal orders and the charters which affected the life of the autochthonous populations.
Khmer inscriptions use an alphabet stemming from Southern India. This early alphabet evolved into the actual form of Khmer. At the end of the 9th century, King
Yasovarman I
Yasovarman I ( km, ព្រះបាទយសោវរ្ម័នទី១) was an Angkorian king who reigned in 889–910 CE. He was called " Leper King".
Early years
Yasovarman was a son of King Indravarman I and his wife Indradevi.
Yaaso ...
attempted to introduce a new form of script probably from Northern India but this attempt to not last beyond his own reign.
Inscriptions in Pali
Pali epigraphy in Khmer provinces is extremely scarce; only a dozen Pali inscriptions have been found, engraved in a span of twelve centuries.
There is no trace of Pali texts proper in ancient Cambodian epigraphy, except epigraphs consisting of the formula: ''Ye dhamma''. The presence of Pali in Khmer epigraphy effectively replaced that of Sanskrit from the 14th century onwards and it was regarded as a sacred language.
Literary genre
Khmer inscriptions attest to the existence of every type of ancient literature - scientific, historical, epic and especially religious.
Religion
The Khmer inscriptions written in Sanskrit are often religious invocations which reveal the influence of philosophical and theological conceptions rooted in Indian texts such as the ''
Upanishad
The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
'', the ''
Purana
Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...
'' and the
''Agama'' for Vaisnavism and
Shaivism
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...
.
Cambodian epigraphy provides a comparatively large and early documentation on
Pancharatra
''Pancharatra'' (IAST: ''Pāñcarātra'') was a religious movement in Hinduism that originated in late 3rd-century BCE around the ideas of Narayana and the various avatars of Vishnu as their central deities.[Vaisnavism
Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...]
which would be peculiar to ancient Cambodia.
Khmer inscriptions are indicative of the prompt movement of religious idea across the Indian Ocean. One example is that the Indian philosopher
Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara ("first Shankara," to distinguish him from other Shankaras)(8th cent. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya ( sa, आदि शङ्कर, आदि शङ्कराचार्य, Ādi Śaṅkarācāryaḥ, lit=First Shanka ...
, who died about 750 AD, is mentioned in a 9th-century Cambodian inscription.
Khmer inscriptions in Pali language, however, refer to
Buddhist corpus.
Legislation
Khmer epigraphy records the use of a state
court system
A court is any person or institution, often as a government institution, with the authority to adjudicate legal disputes between parties and carry out the administration of justice in civil, criminal, and administrative matters in accordance w ...
to maintain land borders and to settle land disputes.
Economy
Unfortunately, the Khmer epigraphy does not provide sufficient documentation for a definitive view of a hierarchical Khmer marketing network, but only clues. Khmer epigraphy is never explicit about issues of money and markets. Instead of reflecting a transaction system adapted to a complex society, the Angkorian period inscriptions show less concern with monetary values than before. Markets and marketing in Angkor are first mentioned at the end of the 12th century in the
Ta Prohm
Ta Prohm ( km, ប្រាសាទតាព្រហ្ម, UNGEGN: , ALA-LC: ; "Ancestor Brahma") is the modern name of the temple in Siem Reap, Cambodia, built in the Bayon style largely in the late 12th and early 13th centuries and origin ...
inscription of
Jayavarman VII
Jayavarman VII, posthumous name of Mahaparamasaugata ( km, ជ័យវរ្ម័នទី៧, c. 1122–1218), was king of the Khmer Empire. He was the son of King Dharanindravarman II (r. 1150–1160) and Queen Sri Jayarajacudamani.
He was ...
. Khmer inscriptions confirm that the Khmer empire did not use a centralized
monopole currency but rather commodity settlements and various available foreign currencies, and that its economy could be described as a
catallaxy based on exchange, as evidenced by the Wat Baset inscription.
Sociology
We know that only
''brahmins'',
''kshatriyas'', and servants are mentioned in ancient Khmer epigraphy, which can be linked to the idea that
caste
Caste is a form of social stratification characterised by endogamy, hereditary transmission of a style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy, and customary social interaction and exclusion based on cultura ...
in India was used rather more flexibly in Ancient Cambodia.
Medical treatise
The Khmer epigraphy has preserved some significant evidences which directly mention medical science.
Music and Dance
In Khmer epigraphy, there is no such text as dealing with art according to Pou Saveros. Information about music and dance found therein is of an incidental nature. Among the many rites and offerings, many artists, dancers, musicians, and singers, are to mentioned to serve the gods in daily worship.
Historiography
The study of Indo-Cambodian epigraphy began in 1879 with the decipherment of some Sanskrit records by H. Kern from the
estampage
Estampage or stamping, is a term commonly used in epigraphy to obtain the exact replica of an inscription that cannot be transported.
According to Jayanti Madhukar, it is defined as: The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines it as:
Etymology
Acc ...
s prepared by Jules Harmand.
The publication of Khmer inscriptions kicked off with the foundational work of Bart and Bergaigne who published their classic ''Inscriptions sanscrites de Campa et du Cambodge'' from 1885 to 1893 with the help of
Étienne Aymonier
Étienne François Aymonier (26 February 1844 – 21 January 1929) was a French linguist and explorer. He was the first archaeologist to systematically survey the ruins of the Khmer empire in today's Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and southern Vietn ...
, who laid the foundations of Khmer epigraphy in his book ''Cambodge'' (1901-1904).
Their work was enriched by the work of
George Cœdès
George Cœdès (; 10 August 1886 – 2 October 1969) was a 20th-century French scholar of southeast Asian archaeology and history.
Biography
Cœdès was born in Paris to a family of supposed Hungarian-Jewish émigrés. In fact, the family was ...
from 1937 to 1954, whose goal was collate the known data about Khmer epigraphy.
Since the death of the latter in 1969, epigraphist Kamaleswar Bhattacharya has claimed that "not a single scholar has turned up who can read both Sanskrit and Khmer".
Others such as Matsuura Fumiaki reject the claim that the field of Khmer epigraphy is moribund since the 1960s quoting the works of scholars such as
Michael Vickery
Michael Theodore Vickery (April 1, 1931 – June 29, 2017) was an American historian, lecturer, and author known for his works about the history of Southeast Asia.
Life
Vickery was born on April 1, 1931, in Billings, Montana.
After acquiring a ...
, and his study on the pre-Angkorian corpus, and Philp Jenner, and his study in collaboration with Vong Sotheara, as well as Gerdi Gerschheimer leading the project of the ''Corpus des Inscriptions khmeres''.
Khmer epigraphy began to be taught as a subject at the
Royal University of Phnom Penh
The Royal University of Phnom Penh (RUPP; km, សាកលវិទ្យាល័យភូមិន្ទភ្នំពេញ; french: Université royale de Phnom Penh) is a national research university of Cambodia, located in the Phnom P ...
even before
Khmer Rouge Regime
Kampuchea ( km, កម្ពុជា ), officially known as Democratic Kampuchea (DK; km, កម្ពុជាប្រជាធិបតេយ្យ ) from 5 January 1976, was a One-party state, one-party Totalitarianism, totalitarian state ...
. It was taught to sophomore students who pursued a degree in history, Khmer literature and linguistics. Today, the teachings have spread to many other universities including the private academic institutions.
Ang Choulean
Ang Choulean ( km, អាំង ជូលាន; born 1 January 1949) is a Cambodian anthropologist. He is a professor of historical anthropology at the Royal University of Fine Arts and formerly the director of the Department of culture of APSA ...
's 2013 textbook on the old Khmer inscriptions was the first authentic textbook written in Khmer while Sotheara has also conducted studies of Khmer epigraphy using Khmer language.
See also
*
Ram Khamhaeng Inscription
References
Bibliography
*
* \
External links
*
{{Cambodia topics
Cambodian literature
Historiography of Cambodia
Khmer Empire
National symbols of Cambodia
Khmer
Steles