Introduction
Japanese uses honorific constructions to show or emphasize social rank, social intimacy or similarity in rank. The choice of pronoun used, for example, will express the social relationship between the person speaking and the person being referred to, and Japanese often avoids pronouns entirely in favor of more explicit titles or kinship terms. Honorific speech is often longer, and sometimes much longer, than more direct speech. Some extreme, but not uncommon, examples include the following: When asking a question: the first is casually between friends, the second is a junior person asking a superior in a formal meeting: *聞いていい? ::''Kiite ii?'' :::Ok to ask (a question)? *聞かせていただけると嬉しいのですが。 ::''Kikasete-itadakeru to ureshii no desu ga.'' :::I would, however, be delighted if I may be permitted to ask (a question). When asking for cooperation: the first is usual and polite, the latter is very formal, but often found in writing, especially in posters or flyers. *ご協力下さい。 ::''Go-kyōryoku-kudasai.'' :::Your cooperation, please. *ご協力の程お願い申し上げます。 ::''Go-kyōryoku no hodo o-negai mōshiagemasu.'' :::We respectfully request the favor of a measure of your cooperation. This latter example includes two honorific prefixes, nominalization of a verb (for formality), a respectful form, and two humble forms.Types of honorifics
Honorifics in Japanese, or , fall under three main categories: ; ; and . is more rarely called , ''kenson'' being an alternative word for "humility, modesty". Linguistically the first is anPolite language
is characterized by the use of the sentence ending "desu" and the verb ending "-masu" and the use ofRespectful language
is a special form or alternative word used when talking about superiors and customers. It is not used to talk about oneself. For example, when a Japanese hairdresser or dentist requests their client to take a seat, they say ''o kake ni natte kudasai'' to mean "please sit down". However, they would use the verb ''suwaru'' る rather than ''o kake ni naru'' to refer to themselves sitting down. The respectful version of language can only be used to refer to others. In general, respectful language is directed at those in positions of power; for example, a superior at work, or a customer. It also implies that the speaker is acting in a professional capacity. It is characterized by lengthy polite expressions. Common verbs may be replaced by more polite alternative verbs, for example ''suru'' (do) by ''nasaru'', or ''hanasu'' (talk) by ''ossharu'' when the subject is a person of respect. Some of these transformations are many-to-one: ''iku'' (go), ''kuru'' (come), and ''iru'' (be) all become ''irassharu'', and ''taberu'' (eat) and ''nomu'' (drink) both become ''meshiagaru''. Verbs may also be changed to respectful forms. One respectful form is a modification of the verb with a prefix and a polite suffix. For example, ''yomu'' (read) becomes ''o-yomi ni naru'', with the prefix ''o-'' added to the i-form of the verb, and the verb ending ''ni naru''. The verb ending ''-(r)areru'' can also be used, such as ''yomareru''. Nouns also undergo substitution to express respect. The normal Japanese word for person becomes in respectful language. Thus, a customer would normally be expected to be referred to as a ''kata'' rather than a ''hito''.Humble language
In general, humble language is used when describing one's actions or the actions of a person in one's in-group to others such as customers in business. Humble language tends to imply that one's actions are taking place in order to assist the other person. is similar to respectful language, in substituting verbs with other forms. For example: ''suru'' (do) becomes ''itasu'', and ''morau'' (receive) becomes ''itadaku''. These two verbs are also seen in set phrases such as ''dō itashimashite'' (you're welcome) and '' itadakimasu'' (いただきます—a phrase said before eating or drinking). Similar to respectful language, verbs can also change their form by adding a prefix and the verb "suru" or "itasu". For example, ''motsu'' (carry) becomes ''o mochi shimasu''. The use of humble forms may imply doing something for the other person; thus a Japanese person might offer to carry something for someone else by saying ''o mochi shimasu''. This type of humble form also appears in the set phrase ''o matase shimashita'', "I am sorry to have kept you waiting", from ''mataseru'' (make wait) with the addition of ''o'' and ''shimasu''. Similarly, ''o negai shimasu'', "please o this, from ''negau'' (request or hope for), again with the addition of ''o'' and ''shimasu''. Even more politely, the form ''motasete itadaku'' literally means "humbly be allowed to carry". This phrase would be used to express the idea that "I will carry it if you please." The same forms may also be used when the speaker is not the agent, as a courtesy to the listener, as in the common phrase 電車が参ります (''densha ga mairimasu'' "a train is arriving") at rail stations. In the case, the announcer him or herself is not arriving, but he or she is simply being courteous. Some linguists distinguish this from kenjōgo (where the speaker is the agent), calling it instead teichōgo (丁重語) "courteous language", and defining it formally as: :Honorifics by which the Speaker shows consideration to the hearer through all expressions of the subject matter. This category was first proposed by Hiroshi Miyachi (宮地裕). Teichōgo, as an addressee honorific, is always used with the teineigo (''-masu'') form, the politeness sequence (using "go" as an example) being 行く, 行きます, 参ります (''iku'', ''ikimasu'', ''mairimasu''). In humble language, name suffixes are dropped when referring to people from inside one's group. Thus, Japanese-speaking company executives would introduce themselves and their team by saying "I am Gushiken, the president, and this is Niwa, the CEO." Similarly to respectful language, nouns can also change. The word , meaning "person", becomes . The humble version is used when referring to oneself or members of one's group, such as one's company.Respectful verbs
:1 The distinction between these three verbs is lost in some respectful forms. :2 Both are the humble form of ; it can also be used for related verbs like and .Word beautification
Word beautification (, , "beautified speech", in also sometimes , , "elegant speech") is the practice of making words more polite or "beautiful". This form of language is employed by the speaker to add refinement to one's manner of speech. This is commonly achieved by adding the prefix or to a word and used in conjunction with the polite form of verbs. In the following example, before and and the polite form of the verb are used to this effect. Generally is used before native Japanese words and is used before Sino-Japanese words, but there are exceptions. : : : Tea and rice crackers go well (together), don't they? In finer classifications, the above example is classified as word beautification—rather than honorific speech—as the speaker is voicing a ''general opinion'' regarding tea and rice crackers and is not intentionally deferential towards the ''listener''. In the following example, the speaker is directly referring to the listener and items received by them and is regarded as honorific language: : : : The sweets you gave me were most delectable. See the section onUsage
Business
Honorifics are considered extremely important in a business setting. Training in honorifics usually does not take place at school or university, so company trainees are trained in correct use of honorifics to customers and superiors.In groups and out groups
When using polite or respectful forms, the point of view of the speaker is shared by the speaker's ''in-group'' (内 ''uchi''), so in-group referents do not take honorifics. For example, members of one's own company are referred to with humble forms when speaking with an external person; similarly, family members of the speaker are referred to humbly when speaking to guests. Similarly, the ''out-group'' (外 ''soto'') addressee or referent is always mentioned in the polite style (though not necessarily with honorifics). Mastery of politeness and honorifics is important for functioning in Japanese society. Not speaking politely enough can be insulting, and speaking too politely can be distancing (and therefore also insulting) or seem sarcastic. Children generally speak using plain informal speech, but they are expected to master politeness and honorifics by the end of their teenage years. Recent trends indicate that the importance of proper politeness is not as high as before, particularly in metropolitan areas. The standards are inconsistently applied towards foreigners, though most textbooks attempt to teach the polite style before considering to teach any of the other styles.Gender differences
Depending on the situation, women's speech may contain more honorifics than men's. In particular, in informal settings, women are more likely to use polite vocabulary and honorific prefixes, such as to mean "eat rice", whereas men may use less polite vocabulary such as with exactly the same meaning. This is part of a general pattern of speech differences by sex. However, in many settings, such as in customer service, there will be little or no difference between male and female speech.Grammatical overview
Japanese has grammatical functions to express several different pragmatic registers. Not only ''politeness'' but also ''respectfulness'', ''humility'' and ''formality'' can be expressed.Expressing politeness
There are three levels of politeness, ''plain'' or ''direct'' ( ''futsūtai'' or 常体 ''jōtai''), ''polite'' or ''distal'' (敬体 ''keitai'' or 丁寧 ''teinei''), and ''formal'' (generally, 敬語 ''keigo'' or 最敬体 ''saikeitai''). Formal and polite can be combined. For example, for the sentence "This is a book", The informal style is used among friends, the distal or polite style by inferiors when addressing superiors and among strangers or casual acquaintances, and the formal style generally in writing or prepared speeches. The plain formal and informal styles of verbs are nearly identical, with a few grammatical differences, such as the verb ''de aru'' being used as a formal copula, and the preferential usage of verb stems to connect clauses instead of the "te form". Formal language in Japanese also uses different vocabulary and structures from informal language. In some contexts, where both the imperfective (incomplete: present/future) and perfective (complete: past) tenses are acceptable, the perfective is considered more polite. This is only at the completion of an activity; common examples are ありがとうございました ''arigatō gozaimashita'' "thank you (for a completed favor)", ご馳走様でした ''go-chisō-sama deshita'' "it was a feast (for a completed meal)", 失礼しました ''shitsurei shimashita'' "I have been rude (when leaving, after a visit)". For example, when entering someone's office, one conventionally says 失礼します ''shitsurei shimasu,'' as the visit is not complete yet, while when exiting one may say either ''shitsurei shimasu'' or, more politely, 失礼しました ''shitsurei shimashita.'' Many phrases cannot be used in the perfective in this way, as the referent is as yet incomplete. For example, the standard greeting お早うございます ''ohayō gozaimasu'' "Good morning" (lit. "It is early") cannot be said as ×お早うございました *''ohayō gozaimashita'' "It was early", as it is used only during the morning.Expressing respect
Further to this, there is another factor, respect, which is indicated in yet other ways. For each politeness level there are two . #The form shows respect to the subject of the sentence. #The form gives respect to the (''Honorific titles
HonorificRequests
Japanese requests and commands have many set forms depending on who is being addressed by whom. For example, the phrase ''yoroshiku o negai shimasu'', meaning "I ask your favor" can take various forms. At the bottom of the scale comes :''yoroshiku tanomu'', which might be used between male friends. Its more polite variant :''yoroshiku tanomimasu'' might be used towards less familiar people or to superiors. Going up in politeness, the phrase :''yoroshiku onegai shimasu'' means the same thing, but is used in business settings. It is possible to go further, replacing the polite "shimasu" with the humble ''itashimasu'', to get :''yoroshiku onegai itashimasu''. In extremely formal Japanese, such as that used on New Year's greeting cards, this may be replaced with an even more polite expression :''yoroshiku onegai mōshiagemasu''. When making requests, at the bottom of the politeness scale comes the plain imperative ''tabero'' or ''kue'', literally "Eat!", a simple order to be said to an inferior or someone considered to have no choice, such as a prisoner. This form might convey anger. Similarly, the "no/n da" suffix can make an order: ''taberu n da'', or ''kuu n da'' "Eat!". To express anger, the suffix ''yagaru'' also exists: "kuiyagare", an extremely forceful and angry instruction to eat, expressing contempt for the addressee. Negatives are formed by adding suffix ''na'': ''taberu na'' "do not eat", ''gomi o suteru na'': "do not throw away rubbish". Similarly, the negative of ''da'', ''ja nai'', can be used: ''taberu n ja nai''. More polite, but still strict, is the ''nasai'' suffix, which attaches to the i-form of the verb. This originates in the polite verb ''nasaru''. ''Tabenasai'' thus is an order perhaps given by a parent to a child. This is often colloquially shortened to ''na'', hence ''tabena''. This form has no grammatical negative. Requests can also be formed by adding to the "te" form of a verb. The plainest form adds ''kure'', an irregular form of the verb ''kureru'', to the te form. For example, ''tabete kure'' or ''kutte kure'': "eat it", less forceful than "tabero". Negatives are made by using the negative "te" form: ''tabenaide kure'' or ''kuwanaide kure'' "don't eat it". Going up one scale in politeness, the more polite verb ''kudasai'' is added. For example, ''tabete kudasai''. With this polite form, the rough ''kū'' verb is unlikely to be used. Similarly, ''tabenaide kudasai'': "please don't eat it". A similar entry on the scale of politeness is made by using the imperative form of a polite verb. For example, ''meshiagaru'', the polite verb for "to eat", when turned into ''meshiagare'', the imperative, becomes the response to the set phrase ''itadakimasu''. Further, more polite forms are also possible. These involve the "i-form" of the verb rather than the "te form", and anHonorific prefixes
The ''bikago'' (beautifying) prefixes ''o-'' (お〜) and ''go-'' (ご〜) (both written with the character 御- in kanji) are honorific prefixes which are applied to nouns and in some contexts to verbs. In general, ''go-'' (the on'yomi) precedes Sino-Japanese words (that is, words borrowed from Chinese or made from Sino-Japanese elements), while ''o-'' (the kun'yomi) precedes native Japanese words. There are many exceptions, however, where the ''o-'' prefix is used for Sino-Japanese words, including お茶 ''o-cha'' "tea", お大事に ''o-daiji-ni'' "get well", お電話 ''o-denwa'' "telephone", お稽古 ''o-keiko'' "practice", お宅 ''o-taku'' "home/you", and many others. There is also one common exception for the ''go-'' prefix, ごゆっくり ''go-yukkuri'' "slowly", where the main word is clearly not of Chinese origin. These prefixes are used for two purposes: to speak respectfully about a stranger or social superior's family, belongings, or actions (as part of 尊敬語, sonkeigo); or to speak in a generally refined or polite way (敬語 ''keigo'' generally, specifically 美化語, ''bikago'').Prefix usage
Although these honorific prefixes are often translated into English as "honorable" ("o-denwa," for example, would be given as "the honorable telephone") this translation is unwieldy and cannot convey the true feeling of their use in Japanese. These prefixes are essentially untranslatable, but their use indicates a polite respect for the item named or the person to or about whom one is speaking. A shorter translation is "dear"—for example, ''o-ko-san'', お子さん, translates idiomatically as "your dear child"—and a similar sentiment is expressed in such English expressions as "Would you '' care for a spot of'' tea?" or "Would you ''care for a little'' tea?" (as opposed to the plain "Would you ''like some'' tea?"). As with honorific word forms and titles, honorific prefixes are used when referring to or speaking with a social superior, or speaking about a superior's actions or possessions, but not usually when referring to oneself or one's own actions or possessions, or those of one's in-group. For example, when referring to one's own order at a restaurant, one would use ''chūmon'', but when referring to a customer's order, the restaurant staff would use ''go-chūmon''. Similarly, ''kazoku'' means "my family," while ''go-kazoku'' means "your family" (or, broadly speaking, someone else's family). There are some words which frequently or always take these prefixes, regardless of who is speaking and to whom; these are often ordinary items which may have particular cultural significance, such as tea (''o-cha'') and rice (''go-han''). The word ''meshi'', the Japanese equivalent of Sino-Japanese ''go-han'', is considered rough and masculine (Verbs
For verbs, a respectful request—or rather a polite command—addressed to a group may be formed by using 御〜, followed by the ''masu''-stem (連用形), followed by . For Chinese verbs (kango + ''suru''), the prefix is generally pronounced ''go-,'' while for native Japanese verbs the prefix is pronounced ''o-.'' This is generally written in kana. The most commonly heard use is (Chinese verb), which is used pervasively in recorded announcement in Japan (escalators, trains and subways, turning trucks), but other verbs are also used frequently, such as (Japanese verb). The respectful prefix can also be used in honorific verbs, when speaking about a superior, in which case it is formed by ''o-,'' followed by the ''masu''-stem, followed by (suitably conjugated), as in .Female names
''O-'' was also commonly used as an honorific prefix to female given names in pre-war Japan, particularly in combination with dropping common suffixes such as -ko (-こ) (-子, literally "child"). For example, would be referred to as , would become , would become , and so on. This was a less polite honorific than "san". For example, a female servant named ''Kikuko'' would be referred to as ''O-kiku'' rather than ''Kikuko-san''. This usage has disappeared in current Japanese, and has been replaced by using the diminutive suffix ''-chan'' instead (compare to male ''-kun''), as in ''Aki-chan'' for ''Akiko''.Rare forms
There is also a rarer prefix ''mi-'' (kun'yomi), which is mostly used in words related to gods and the emperor, such as ''mi-koshi'' (御輿, "portable shrine" in Shinto) and ''mi-na'' (御名, "the Holy Name" in Christianity). However, in this context it is often replaced by 神 ("god", also pronounced ''mi-''), and then a further 御 (pronounced お-, ''o-'') may be added, as in 御神輿 (''o-mi-koshi''). Sometimes the reading is ambiguous—for example, 御霊屋 "mausoleum" may be pronounced either ''mi-tama-ya'' or ''o-tama-ya''. When pronounced as ''mi-,'' the prefix is usually written in kanji (unlike ''o-'' and ''go-'', which are very frequently hiragana), but in some case it is written in hiragana, with a notable example being ''mi-hotoke'' (御仏, "Lord Buddha") often being written as み仏, partly to avoid confusion with the incorrect reading *''go-butsu''. The honorific prefix generally does not fall in the middle. In compounds, where the honorific would fall in the middle, the honorific is almost always dropped. For example, お茶/御茶 ''o-cha'' "tea", but 麦茶 ''mugi-cha'' "barley tea", not ×麦お茶/麦御茶 *''mugi-o-cha''. There are exceptions, however, such as 乾御門 ''inui-go-mon'' "northwest gate (to imperial palace)"; note that 乾門 ''inui-mon'' "northwest gate (generally)" is also used. Rarely, 御 is used instead as an honorific ''suffix,'' notably in 甥御 ''oigo'' "your nephew" and 姪御 ''meigo'' "your niece". The character 御 has other readings, notably ''on'' (kun'yomi) and ''gyo'' (on'yomi), as seen in and , but these are not productive (they are not used to form new words, but only in existing words). Another prefix, pronounced ''o-'' (お〜) and potentially confused with 御〜 when written in hiragana, is 阿〜 ''o-'', which also has affectionate connotations, but is a separate term and not productive. It was previously used for endearment for women's names, and today is most notable in 阿多福/阿亀 (''o-ta-fuku,'' ''o-kame'', "moon-faced woman, homely woman"), which are frequently written as お多福/お亀, which may be mistaken (partially) for hiragana forms of ×御多福/×御亀. The character 阿 is more frequently pronounced ''a,'' and used especially in words and names from Sanskrit, such as the ''a'' in the syllable "English analogs
While English has different registers, its levels of formality and politeness are not as formalized or as clearly defined as in Japanese. However, they can be instructive in gaining a feel for Japanese speech. English imperatives range from very blunt ("Give me the book"), to very indirect and elaborate ("If it's not too much trouble, could you please be so kind as to pass me the book?"—note the use of potential form, as in Japanese). Similarly, changes in word use can make language more flowery or respectful—rather than "Do you know?", one might say "Are you familiar with?" or "Are you acquainted with?", which convey some of the feel of 知る ''shiru'' versus ご存知だ ''go-zonji da''. In English, words of Germanic origin are generally plainer, those from French are generally more flowery (compare "drink" versus "beverage"), and those from Latin are more formal and technical (seeManual keigo
Some convenience stores and fast-food restaurants teach their young and part-time employees to verbally interact with customers in strictly prescribed ways laid down in instruction manuals. These forms of speech are known as マニュアル敬語 (''manyuaru keigo'', "manual keigo") or バイト敬語 (''baito keigo'', "part-timer keigo"). Manual keigo includes forms which would be considered incorrect or at least non-standard in terms of traditional usage (keigo and otherwise). A common example is ''udon ni narimasu'' (literally " hisbecomes udon", " hiswill be udon") as a polite form of ''udon desu'' (" hisis udon"), instead of the standard ''udon de gozaimasu'' (" hisis udon (polite)")—this manual keigo form is often criticized on the basis that the udon is not "becoming" anything, and therefore ''ni naru'' is incorrect, both as keigo and more generally.See also
* Aizuchi (相槌 ''aizuchi'') * Japanese grammar * Japanese language * Japanese names * Japanese pronouns * Korean honorifics * Honorifics (linguistics) * Thai honorifics * Japanese etiquetteNotes
References
External links