Kartir (also spelled Karder, Karter and Kerdir;
Middle Persian
Middle Persian or Pahlavi, also known by its endonym Pārsīk or Pārsīg () in its later form, is a Western Middle Iranian language which became the literary language of the Sasanian Empire. For some time after the Sasanian collapse, Middle Per ...
: 𐭪𐭫𐭲𐭩𐭫 ''Kardīr'') was a powerful and influential
Zoroastrian
Zoroastrianism is an Iranian religion and one of the world's oldest organized faiths, based on the teachings of the Iranian-speaking prophet Zoroaster. It has a dualistic cosmology of good and evil within the framework of a monotheistic on ...
priest during the reigns of four Sasanian kings in the 3rd-century. His name is cited in the inscriptions of
Shapur I
Shapur I (also spelled Shabuhr I; pal, 𐭱𐭧𐭯𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭩, Šābuhr ) was the second Sasanian King of Kings of Iran. The dating of his reign is disputed, but it is generally agreed that he ruled from 240 to 270, with his father Ardas ...
(as well as in the ''
Res Gestae Divi Saporis
Shapur I's Ka'ba-ye Zartosht inscription (shortened as Shapur-KZ, ŠKZ, SKZ), also referred to as The Great Inscription of Shapur I, and ''Res Gestae Divi Saporis'' (RGDS), is a trilingual inscription made during the reign of the Sasanian king Sh ...
'') and the
Paikuli inscription
The Paikuli inscription ( ku, پەیکوڵی, Peykulî, fa, پایکولی, in ar, بيكولي) is a bilingual Parthian and Middle Persian text corpus which was inscribed on the stone blocks of the walls of Paikuli tower; the latter is located ...
of
Narseh
Narseh (also spelled Narses or Narseus; pal, 𐭭𐭥𐭮𐭧𐭩, New Persian: , ''Narsē'') was the seventh Sasanian King of Kings of Iran from 293 to 303.
The youngest son of Shapur I (), Narseh served as the governor of Sakastan, Hind and ...
. Kartir also had inscriptions of his own made in the present-day
Fars Province (then known as
Pars). His inscriptions narrates his rise to power throughout the reigns of Shapur I (),
Hormizd I
Hormizd-Ardashir, better known by his dynastic name of Hormizd I (also spelled Hormozd I or Ohrmazd I; pal, 𐭠𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭬𐭦𐭣), was the third Sasanian King of Kings (''shahanshah'') of Iran, who ruled from May 270 to June 271. He was ...
(),
Bahram I (), and
Bahram II (). During the brief reign of Bahram II's son and successor
Bahram III, Kartir was amongst the nobles who supported the rebellion of Narseh, who overthrew Bahram III and ascended the throne. During Narseh's reign, Kartir faded into obscurity.
Name
Kartir's name is spelled in several ways in the engravings; Middle Persian
, Parthian Parthian may be:
Historical
* A demonym "of Parthia", a region of north-eastern of Greater Iran
* Parthian Empire (247 BC – 224 AD)
* Parthian language, a now-extinct Middle Iranian language
* Parthian shot, an archery skill famously employed by ...
, Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
''Karteir'', and Coptic
Coptic may refer to:
Afro-Asia
* Copts, an ethnoreligious group mainly in the area of modern Egypt but also in Sudan and Libya
* Coptic language, a Northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt until at least the 17th century
* Coptic alphabet ...
''Kardel''. The name was also used in the northeastern Iranian world, being spelt in Sogdian and as ''Kirdira'' in Bactrian.
Biography
Under Shapur I and Hormizd I
Kartir may have been a eunuch
A eunuch ( ) is a male who has been castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function.
The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2nd millennium ...
, due to being depicted without a beard in the Sasanian reliefs. He first appears in historical records in Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht
Shapur I's Ka'ba-ye Zartosht inscription (shortened as Shapur-KZ, ŠKZ, SKZ), also referred to as The Great Inscription of Shapur I, and ''Res Gestae Divi Saporis'' (RGDS), is a trilingual inscription made during the reign of the Sasanian king S ...
, which was most likely created between 260 and 262. Kartir is the only religious bureaucrat mentioned in the inscription. Shapur I, a "lukewarm Zoroastrian", was known for his tolerance towards other religions. Although admiring the teachings of his own religion and encouraging the Zoroastrian
Zoroastrianism is an Iranian religion and one of the world's oldest organized faiths, based on the teachings of the Iranian-speaking prophet Zoroaster. It has a dualistic cosmology of good and evil within the framework of a monotheistic on ...
clergy, Shapur I let the Jews
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
, Christians
Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
, Buddhists
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
, and Hindus
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
to freely practice their religion. He was also friendly towards the founder of Manichaeism
Manichaeism (;
in New Persian ; ) is a former major religionR. van den Broek, Wouter J. Hanegraaff ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times''SUNY Press, 1998 p. 37 founded in the 3rd century AD by the Parthian Empire, Parthian ...
, Mani
Mani may refer to:
Geography
* Maní, Casanare, a town and municipality in Casanare Department, Colombia
* Mani, Chad, a town and sub-prefecture in Chad
* Mani, Evros, a village in northeastern Greece
* Mani, Karnataka, a village in Dakshi ...
, whom he allowed to preach freely and even to be an escort in his military expeditions.
Shapur I religious practices seems to have been somewhat unusual, with animal sacrifice being made for the soul of the kings and queens of the Sasanian family. This presumably seemed "pagan" to Zoroastrian priests. Kartir, who "abhorred animal sacrifice" was unable to stop Shapur I from doing them. Shapur I died in 270, and was succeeded by Hormizd I
Hormizd-Ardashir, better known by his dynastic name of Hormizd I (also spelled Hormozd I or Ohrmazd I; pal, 𐭠𐭥𐭧𐭥𐭬𐭦𐭣), was the third Sasanian King of Kings (''shahanshah'') of Iran, who ruled from May 270 to June 271. He was ...
, who gave Kartir clothes that were worn by the upper class, the cap and belt (''kulāf
A ''kulāf'', or kolāh, is a type of cap that designated Sasanian nobility and official. It appears on numerous reliefs and seals of the Sasanian Empire period.
The ''kulāf'' is often decorated with pearls, on the edge and on the surface of the ...
ud kamarband'') and appointed him as the chief priest (''mowbed
A Mobed, Mowbed, or Mobad (Middle Persian: 𐭬𐭢𐭥𐭯𐭲) is a Zoroastrian cleric of a particular rank. Unlike an ''herbad'' (''ervad''), a ''mobed'' is qualified to serve as celebrant priest at the Yasna ceremony and other higher liturgical ...
'').
Hormizd I died the following year; Bahram I, who was never considered a candidate for succession of the throne by his father, ascended the throne with the aid of Kartir, whose authority and influence had greatly increased. Bahram I then made a settlement with his brother Narseh
Narseh (also spelled Narses or Narseus; pal, 𐭭𐭥𐭮𐭧𐭩, New Persian: , ''Narsē'') was the seventh Sasanian King of Kings of Iran from 293 to 303.
The youngest son of Shapur I (), Narseh served as the governor of Sakastan, Hind and ...
to give up his entitlement to the throne in return for the governorship of the important frontier province of Armenia
Armenia (), , group=pron officially the Republic of Armenia,, is a landlocked country in the Armenian Highlands of Western Asia.The UNbr>classification of world regions places Armenia in Western Asia; the CIA World Factbook , , and ''Ox ...
, which was constantly the subject of war between the Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...
and Sasanian Empires. Narseh held the title of ''Vazurg Šāh Arminān'' ("Great King of Armenia"), which was used by the heir to the throne. Nevertheless, Narseh still most likely viewed Bahram I as a usurper.
Under Bahram I
The previous Sasanian shahs had pursued a policy of religious tolerance towards the non-Zoroastrian minorities in the empire. However, with Bahram I's accession to the throne, and the rise of the authority of the Zoroastrian priesthood and the increasing influence of Kartir, this changed; when Mani reached the city of Gundishapur, much uproar occurred, in the same fashion as Jesus
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...
' entry into Jerusalem
Jerusalem (; he, יְרוּשָׁלַיִם ; ar, القُدس ) (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); grc, Ἱερουσαλήμ/Ἰεροσόλυμα, Hierousalḗm/Hierosóluma; hy, Երուսաղեմ, Erusałēm. i ...
. Kartir, along with other Zoroastrian priests protested and made Bahram I have Mani imprisoned and sentenced to death in 274.
Mani's death was followed by the persecution of his followers by Kartir and the Zoroastrian clergy, who used the persecution of religious minorities as a method to increase and spread their vast influence. Mani was seen by the Zoroastrian clergy as heterogeneous philosopher and a threatening pagan who was presenting an obscure perception of Zoroastrianism, which had been tainted by non-Zoroastrian (i.e., Jewish, Buddhist, and Christian) ideas. With the backing of Bahram I, Kartir laid foundations to a Zoroastrian state church. As a result, Bahram I became applauded in Sasanian-based sources as a "benevolent and worthy king." His son Bahram II succeeded him as shah; he may have been aided by Kartir to ascend the throne instead of Narseh. This most likely frustrated Narseh, who had now been neglected from succession several times.
Under Bahram II, Bahram III and Narseh
Bahram II, like his father, received Kartir well. He saw him as his mentor, and handed out several honors to Kartir, giving him the rank of grandee (''wuzurgan
Wuzurgan ( pal, 𐭥𐭰𐭥𐭫𐭢, meaning "grandees" or the "great ones"), also known by its Modern Persian form of Bozorgan (بزرگان), was the name of the high nobility and the third class-rank of the four of the Sasanian aristocracy. Af ...
''), and appointing him as the supreme judge (''dadwar
''Dadwar'' (Middle Persian: ''Dādwar'', meaning "bearer of law") was a Sasanian administrative office which corresponded to a sort of judge, who, as a deputy of the ''mowbed'' (chief priest), evaluated civil cases at a district level. The ''(ham)s ...
'') of the whole empire, which indicates that thenceforth priests were given the office of judge. Kartir was also appointed the steward of the Anahid fire-temple
The Temple of Anahita (Middle Persian: ''Ādur-Anāhīd'') was an ancient fire temple in Istakhr dedicated to the worship of the Iranian peoples, Iranian goddess Anahita, Anahid.
History
The temple was probably founded by the Achaemenid Empir ...
at Istakhr
Istakhr (Middle Persian romanized: ''Stakhr'', fa, اصطخر, translit=Istakhr also spelt استخر in modern literature) was an ancient city in Fars province, north of Persepolis in southwestern Iran. It flourished as the capital of the Persi ...
, which had originally been under the care of the Sasanian family. The Sasanian kings thus lost much of their religious authority in the empire. The clergy from now on served as judges all over the country, with court cases most likely being based on Zoroastrian jurisprudence, with the exception of when representatives of other religions had conflicts with each other.
It is thus under Bahram II that Kartir unquestionably becomes a powerful figure in the empire; the latter claimed on his inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht
The Ka'ba-ye Zartosht ( fa, کعبه زرتشت), or the Cube of Zarathustra, is a stone quadrangular stepped structure in the Naqsh-e Rustam compound beside Zangiabad village in Marvdasht county in Fars, Iran. The Naqsh-e Rustam compound also ...
that he "struck down" the non-Zoroastrian minorities, such as the Christians
Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
, Jews
Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
, Mandaeans
Mandaeans ( ar, المندائيون ), also known as Mandaean Sabians ( ) or simply as Sabians ( ), are an ethnoreligious group who are followers of Mandaeism. They believe that John the Baptist was the final and most important prophet. They ...
, Manichaeans
Manichaeism (;
in New Persian ; ) is a former major religionR. van den Broek, Wouter J. Hanegraaff ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times''SUNY Press, 1998 p. 37 founded in the 3rd century AD by the Parthian prophet Mani (AD ...
, and Buddhists
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
. According to the modern historian Parvaneh Pourshariati: "it is not clear, however, to what extent Kartir's declarations reflect the actual implementation, or for that matter, success, of the measures he is supposed to have promoted." Indeed, Jewish and Christian sources, for example, makes no mention of persecutions during this period. Before Bahram II, all the previous Sasanian shahs had been "lukewarm Zoroastrians." He died in 293 and was succeeded by his son Bahram III.
Four months into Bahram III's reign, Narseh
Narseh (also spelled Narses or Narseus; pal, 𐭭𐭥𐭮𐭧𐭩, New Persian: , ''Narsē'') was the seventh Sasanian King of Kings of Iran from 293 to 303.
The youngest son of Shapur I (), Narseh served as the governor of Sakastan, Hind and ...
was summoned to Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia ''Mesopotamíā''; ar, بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن or ; syc, ܐܪܡ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, or , ) is a historical region of Western Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the F ...
at the request of many members of the Iranian nobility. He met them in the passage of Paikuli in the province of Garmekan
Garmekan or Garamig (Middle Persian: ''Garamīkān''/''Garmagān)''Morony, Michael (1989a)"BĒṮ GARMĒ" Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 2. p. 187. was an early Sasanian province located in northern Mesopotamia, between the Little Zab and ...
, where he was firmly approved and likely also declared shah for the first time. The reasons behind the nobles favour of Narseh might have been due to his jurisdiction as governor, his image as an advocate of the Zoroastrian
Zoroastrianism is an Iranian religion and one of the world's oldest organized faiths, based on the teachings of the Iranian-speaking prophet Zoroaster. It has a dualistic cosmology of good and evil within the framework of a monotheistic on ...
religion and as an insurer for harmony and prosperity of the empire. His ancestry from the early Sasanian family probably also played a role. Kartir was one of those nobles who supported Narseh, which is attested in the Paikuli inscription
The Paikuli inscription ( ku, پەیکوڵی, Peykulî, fa, پایکولی, in ar, بيكولي) is a bilingual Parthian and Middle Persian text corpus which was inscribed on the stone blocks of the walls of Paikuli tower; the latter is located ...
. Narseh's reign marked the return to the policy of religious tolerance which had been practiced by his father. Kartir fades into obscurity in historical records under Narseh, due to not doing anything noteworthy as high priest.
Legacy and assessment
According to the modern historian Prods Oktor Skjærvø, "In both Iranist and non-Iranist literature, there has been a tendency to elaboration and hyperbole. Several scholars have taken a strict and critical view of Kartir from their modern, and so irrelevant, vantage point." Zaehner called Kartir a "religious zealot of quite uncommon ardour" and to "the process of intolerance initiated and zestfully developed by Kartir". Russell called him a "a ruthless fanatic, Kartir, hopromoted the xenophobic state cult", while Folz refers to him as "fanatical". More positive views of Kartir are also found in modern sources, such as Hinz, who called him a "spiritual man yearning for a religious truth that ought to be revealed to all", while Neusner described "the asaniangovernment’s enthusiasm for Kartir’s program".
See also
* Kartir's inscription at Naqsh-e Rajab
References
Sources
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Further reading
* Kartir'
inscription on the Ka'ba-i Zartosht
and th
from
{{Refend
3rd-century births
3rd-century deaths
Zoroastrian priests
3rd-century clergy
3rd-century Iranian people
People from the Sasanian Empire